CC BY
0JWPR
Journal of World's Poultry Research
2022, Scienceline Publication
J. World Poult. Res. 12(4): 245-257, December 25, 2022
Research Paper, PII: S2322455X2200027-12 License: CC BY 4.0
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2022.27
Characterization and Typology of Traditional Poultry Farming Systems in Southern Niger
Ahamidou Moustapha1* , Akourki Adamou2 , and Essodina Talaki1' 3©
'Centre d'Excellence Régional sur les Sciences Aviaires, Université de Lomé (CERSA/UL), 01 BP: 1515, Lomé, Togo 2Faculté d'Agronomie et des Sciences de l'Environnement, Université DanDickoDankoulodo deMaradi (FASE/UDDM), BP: 465, Maradi, Niger 3Ecole Supérieure d'Agronomie, Université de Lomé (ESA/UL), 01 BP: 1515, Lomé, Togo
*Corresponding author's Email: ahmidoum1@gmail.com
Received: 05 October 2022 Accepted: 27 December 2022
ABSTRACT
An appropriate agricultural policy that integrates knowledge of endogenous poultry practices should enhance household resilience by contributing to food and nutrition security and sustainable development in developing countries. The current cross-sectional survey aimed to characterize poultry breeding systems and identify types of traditional poultry farmers in Maradi and Zinder in southern Niger. Therefore, 600 households were investigated for the socio-economic parameters of poultry farmers' the breeding methods' the zootechnical parameters of the local chicken, and the health parameters relating to biosecurity and animal care. The results of the descriptive analyses indicated that traditional poultry activity is mainly carried out by men (73.5%) and small farmers (74.2%). Breeding management was primarily free-range breeding (99.3%). The majority of the surveyed herders (67.8%) were illiterate. However, 41.5% of them attended traditional Islamic Koranic schools. Most farmers (80%) were small-scale livestock farmers with an average herd size of 22 ± 24.9. The poultry raised were 93.3% local breeds, with chicken domination (66%). The housing did not meet the required standards, and the feed was mainly cereals. The female chicken can potentially produce 12.64 fertile eggs per clutch and brood 3.53 times per year. The leading cause of mortality in poultry was avian diseases (93.7%) and Newcastle disease in some cases. Poultry vaccination against Newcastle disease was reported by 31.5% of respondents. Of the respondents, 20% have partially observed hygiene and biosecurity measures. About 35.5% of the participants reported the provision of veterinary care, while 44% used phytotherapy to prevent or treat poultry diseases. Based on the results of this cluster analysis, three classes of poultry farmers were distinguished, each with specific characteristics. Poultry farmers in class 1 were particularly characterized by the diversity of their main activity and their level of education, those in class 2 were mostly employed in agriculture and had little school experience, and those in class 3 were characterized by their low level of vaccination practice and their lack of therapeutic animal care. The results also indicated that 15.7%, 70.8%, and 13.5% of poultry farmers belonged to classes 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Keywords: Characterization, Farmer, Niger, Poultry diseases, Poultry production
Niger is a Sahelian country by excellence. It faces recurrent food crises, forcing the government to consider political and institutional solutions to provide definitive responses. In 2012, the government developed and implemented a strategy for sustainable food and nutritional security and agricultural development that includes the promotion of short-cycle livestock systems (poultry and fish farming) as one of the production's priority investment programs (HCI3N, 2012).
In Niger, poultry production is dominated by the traditional system. Of the population, 80% practice poultry
farming, and 98% come from the traditional sector (MAG/EL, 2020). Similar to other developing countries, traditional poultry farming in Niger plays an important socio-cultural, nutritional and economic role. It is a means of improving food security (Wong et al., 2017) and nutrition (Scanes, 2007), alleviating poverty (Dolberg, 2003), creating employment and income, and contributing significantly to improving the living standard of poor populations (Fasina et al., 2007).
Despite its potential, traditional poultry farming faces many performance challenges, as well as biosecurity and husbandry barriers (Moula et al., 2012; Alem, 2014). The development of any strategy to promote the growth of the
To cite this paper: Moustapha A, Adamou A, and Talaki E (2022). Characterization and Typology of Traditional Poultry Farming Systems in Southern Niger. J. World Poult. Res., 12 (4): 245-257. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2022.27
traditional poultry sector must be based on reliable and updated statistical data. These data constitute a decisionmaking means. However, data on the current situation are not widely available and can only be obtained through better monitoring of farms and better collection and analysis of field data. Over the past decade, few studies have documented traditional poultry farming in Niger. These studies focused on diseases in local chickens and guinea fowl (Idi et al., 1999; Idi et al., 2001; Souley et al., 2021) and characterization of local chickens (Moussa et al., 2020). However, none of these studies addressed the rearing system. The breeding system results from interactions between humans, their environment, and the flock. The study of breeding systems aims to account for the diversity of breeding practices and understand and analyze the animal's performance without blaming the delay on the producers or the inefficiency of knowledge transfer (Lhoste, 1984; Dedieu et al., 2008).
Thus, the present study aimed to advance the documentation of traditional poultry farming in Niger and to provide decision-makers with the information needed to guide research and development actions. Specifically, it described the characteristics of traditional poultry farming systems and highlighted the different types of poultry farmers, management methods, and the main factors and practices involved. Finally, the study provided relevant data to guide traditional poultry development projects and programs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study was conducted in southern Niger, in 10 departments and 2 cities in the regions of Maradi and Zinder. These 12 administrative entities are covered the Sahelian and Sahelo-Sudanian agroecological zones.
The Sahelian zone is a steppe area with a Sahelian climate that covers the Departments of Mirriah, and Takeita, the Northan Departments of Aguié, Gazaoua, and Tessaoua, and the city of Zinder. The Sahelo-Sudanian zone is the savanna domain that covers Guidan Roumdji, Madarounfa, Kantché, Magaria, Dungass, the southern part of the departments of Aguié, Gazaoua, and Tessaoua, and the city of Maradi. This part of the territory is a transition zone between the Sahelian and Sudanian zones (Wata et al., 2012).
Zinder rain station records an average rainfall annual of 502.12 mm in 43 days, an average temperature ranging from 22.18 to 35.3°C, and an annual relative humidity ranging from 20.4 to 49.8% (INS, 2020). Maradi rainfall
station records an average annual rainfall of 562.8 mm in 45 days, an average temperature ranging from 21.54 to 35.38°C, and an annual relative humidity of 27 to 57.6%. Rainfall occurs between June and September (INS, 2020).
The two study regions have an area of 197,574 km2, or 15.6% of the national territory, with an estimated population of 9,584,421 inhabitants in 2021, representing 40.6% of the total population (INS, 2019).
Administratively, Niger is subdivided into regions, regions into departments and cities, departments into urban and rural communes, and cities into boroughs. Communes and boroughs are, in turn, subdivided into administrative villages, hamlets, camps, and neighborhoods. Figure 1 clearly illustrates the study area.
Sampling
A stratified random sampling method with proportional allocation was used to define the samples. In the first stratum, the agricultural departments located along the border with the Federal Republic of Nigeria were selected in each of the two regions as well as the cities of Maradi and Zinder. In the second stratum, a maximum of three communes or boroughs were selected per department or city. In the next stage, a maximum of three localities were randomly selected in each commune or borough. Then, by referring to the national directory of localities (ReNaloc), the number of farm households to be surveyed per commune or borough was determined in proportion to the number of total farm households. Finally, the households surveyed were drawn from the list of households drawn up by the village chief. Table 1 shows the distribution of households surveyed.
Data collection
Data were collected from November 2021 to January 2022, including semi-open and closed-ended questions. The questionnaire was administered face-to-face using the
KoBoCollect collection tool (Version 2021.2.4). Information collected included geographic location, household socioeconomic data (gender, age, main activity, education level, poultry training, husbandry goals, and experience), farm technical data (species, breed, origin of animals, type and size of farming, habitat, feed, breeding parameters), and farm health data (mortalities and causes,
knowledge of Newcastle Disease, biosecurity, vaccination practice, types of treatment, and access to husbandry service). Information on plants used by poultry farmers to prevent and treat poultry diseases was obtained in local languages, and the scientific names were checked in the lexicon of Niger plants written by Peyre de Fabregue (1979).
Table 1. Number of households surveyed by commune or borough in Niger from November 2021 to January 2022
Region Departments and cities Communes and boroughs Number of households surveyed
Aguié Aguié Tchadoua 32 18
Gazaoua Gangara Gazaoua 11 23
Chadakori 23
Guidan Roumdji Guidan Roumdji Tibiri 19 22
Maradi Dan Issa 19
Madarounfa Djirataoua Serkin Yamma 16 9
Hawandawaki 9
Tessaoua Maijirgui Tessaoua 14 31
Maradi 1 3
Maradi Maradi 2 Maradi 3 2 3
Dungass 34
Dungass Dogo dogo Malawa 16 23
Matamey 12
Kantché Kantché Yaouri 12 14
Bande 32
Zinder Magaria Magaria Sassoumbroum 27 19
Mirriah Dogo Droum Mirriah 32 29 18
Dakoussa 16
Takeita Garagoumssa Tirmini 14 30
Zinder 1 5
Zinder Zinder 2 Zinder 5 4 9
Total
600
Statistical analysis
To analyze the data, R software (Version 4.1.2) was used. The descriptive analysis was run to characterize the breeding systems by calculating the means, standard deviations, and relative and absolute frequencies. To carry out the typological study, Mixed data factor analysis (MDFA) was first used to combine the quantitative and qualitative variables into a single analysis and to identify subsets of homogeneous and strongly related variables according to the method of Pages (2004). This method was performed using the ClustOfVar algorithm, a package of
R. Secondly, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the synthetic obtained variables to identify those that can participate in the classification of the investigated poultry farmers. This approach resulted in an appropriate classification with a fairly acceptable explained variance. At this level, a step-by-step top-down method was applied. For the selection of synthetic variables, when the PCA is compiled, the variable that is poorly represented and/or contributes less to the construction of the principal components is eliminated. This means that this synthetic variable was nonsignificant (p > 0.05). The process was
repeated several times until an acceptable PCA was obtained. The synthetic variables retained in the PCA were subjected to Hierarchical ascending classification (HAC). Finally, the results of the variable classification were interpreted using the method by Kuentz-Simonet et al. (2013).
RESULTS
Socioeconomic characteristics of poultry farmers
The obtained results of the present study showed that traditional poultry farming is an activity dominated by men (73.5%) and small farmers (74.2%). The age of the poultry farmers surveyed ranged from 12 to 92 years, with an average of 39.45 ± 15.02 years. Most of them (67.8%) had no school experience. However, a large proportion of them (41.5%) had received Islamic education at the Koranic school. Regarding marital status, 86.2% of the herders surveyed were married. Regarding the years of experience in poultry farming, more than half (54.84%) had 1-10 years of experience (Table 2). About 53% of the households surveyed kept poultry for consumption plus income, 25% for income, 14% for ritual and tradition purposes, and 8% for consumption only.
Breeding methods and animal composition
In the case of the surveyed households, scavenging system (78.5%) and mid-scavenging system (20.8%) were the dominant breeding methods. In the scavenging system, the animals are not confined and can roam over long distances in the village. In contrast, in the mid-scavenging system, the animals are confined to their concessions and rarely have access to the village. Most of the poultry farmers surveyed (80%) could be classified as small-scale farmers with an average of 22.10 ± 24.9 head. The birds raised were mostly (93.3%) local breeds, and the basic stock was mainly acquired from local markets (64.8%), neighboring villages (29.8%), and traditional hatcheries (4%). The 87.2% of eggs laid by the hen were used for brooding. Approximately 60% of the farmers surveyed practiced single-species breeding, as opposed to 40% who combined chicken breeding with other species of domestic birds. The flock households were dominated by chickens (66%), followed by guinea fowls (22.2%), ducks (5.8%), pigeons (5.2%), and turkeys (0.5%).
Shelter and breeding equipment
In the traditional breeding system, the chicken house provides bird shelter at night and protects them from bad weather and predators. The findings of the present study indicated that nearly a quarter (22.7%) of the farmers
surveyed did not have a chicken coop. In these households, the animals find shelter at night in the corners of houses in unfinished rooms on walls and trees. Among households with chicken coops (77.3%), three types of coops could be distinguished. The most common coops were made of straw huts (60%), improved coops were made of wood (30%), and wire coops (10%). In almost all cases, the breeding equipment was limited to the drinking trough, which served as a feeder. There are practically no feeders. However, the troughs are often made of pottery pieces, fragments of worn tires, or other troughs of circumstance.
Feed
Poultry feed was composed of cereals, including millet, sorghum, millet bran, wheat bran, kitchen waste, and water during the dry seasons (cold and hot). During the rainy season, it was made of birds' peck at insects and vegetation in addition to grain and water. The drinking water for poultry came mainly from wells, boreholes, and ponds.
Reproduction
Table 3 tabulates the mean for age at maturity of a cock, age at the first laying of a hen, number of eggs per laying, number of eggs hatched per laying, and number of layings per hen per year. The p-values of these reproductive parameters between the two agroecological zones were 0.82, 0.98, 0.36, 0.67, and 0.82, respectively. The difference in the means of the reproductive parameters between the two agroecological zones was nonsignificant (p < 0.05). Therefore, the agroecological zone factor did not affect the reproduction parameters.
Advisory and technical support for poultry farmers
Few of the farmers surveyed (9.7%) had received short-term training in poultry farming. The state designed a community animal health system and its partners to extend the network of veterinary services and bring the breeding service closer to the breeders. Thus, in 2003, the rural veterinary clinic and its network of auxiliaries were created in Niger. Basic animal health services were then provided by the technical breeding services, the private veterinary services of proximity, and especially by the breeding auxiliaries. Farmer schools' field are also set up to disseminate technological innovations and improve local practices in small-scale breeding. Poultry kits were also distributed to enhance poultry production or
distribute genetic materials. These operations were usually accompanied by deworming and mass vaccination. A new concept of poultry enterprise is implemented. It involves re-training the poultry farmer in
the poultry business by building rural mini-farms in compliance with technical standards in terms of the structure of buildings, density of birds, monitoring of the farms, and training the farmers with the necessary support.
Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics of poultry farmers in Niger from November 2021 to January 2022
Variables Modalities Number of poultry farmers Frequency (%)
Male 441 73.5
Gender
Female 159 26.5
Youth (Under 36 years old) 278 46.33
Age Adults (36 to 60 years old) 268 44.67
Old (Over 60 years old) 54 9
Single 76 12.7
Marital status Married 517 86.2
Widowed 7 1.2
Non-literate 107 17.8
Literacy 48 8
Level of education Koranic sch(X)l 249 41.5
Primary 100 16.7
Secondary 91 15.2
Higher 5 0.8
1 to 5 years 133 22.17
6 to 10 years 196 32.67
Years of experience in poultry production 11 to 20 years 170 28.33
21 to 30 years 84 14
Over 30 years 17 2.83
Agriculture 445 74.2
Trade 40 6.7
Principal activity
Public service 32 5.3
Other activities 83 13.8
Table 3. Zootechnical parameters of local chickens in southern Niger from November 2021 to January 2022
_______Agroecological zones Sahelian Sahelo-soudanian Mean
Production parameters --^^^^
Age at maturity of a cock (months) 4.75 ± 0.66 4.77 ± 0.67 4.76 ± 0.67
Age at which hens start laying (months) 6.5 ± 0.62 6.5 ± 0.61 6.5 ± 0.61
Number of eggs laid per clutch 12.51 ± 2.58 12.71 ± 2.52 12.64 ± 2.54
Number of chicks hatched per clutch 10.39 ± 2.05 10.46 ± 2.16 10.44 ± 2.12
Number of broods per year 3.54 ± 0.49 3.53 ± 0.49 3.53 ± 0.49
Causes of mortality and knowledge of Newcastle disease
The poultry farms in the households surveyed were characterized by high mortality of chickens and guinea fowl of all categories caused by disease (93.7%), trampling (3.2%), predators (1.6%), and climatic hazards (1.5%). Almost all surveyed farmers (96.7%) were aware of Newcastle disease and could describe its clinical signs, such
as greenish diarrhea, torticollis, respiratory distress, and depression, most often associated with high mortality of approximately 90%. Approximately 82.7% of the surveyed farmers stated that Newcastle disease occurred in the cold dry season. However, 12.7% of the surveyed farmers reported that it happened in the hot dry season, and 4.6% of the surveyed farmers stated that it appeared all year round. According to poultry farmers surveyed,
outbreaks of Newcastle disease occur mainly at the beginning and end of the cold, dry season, and the Harmattan wind spreads the disease.
Biosecurity
Biosecurity is the set of practices and measures used to prevent the introduction, maintenance, and dissemination of pathogens on a farm. The results of the current study indicated that only one-fifth of the farmers practiced quarantine of newly acquired animals (20.2%) and isolation of sick animals (19.2%). Approximately 70.8% of poultry farmers, discarded dead birds in the wild. Almost all farmers (99%) swept the poultry house, but with a wide range of frequency. Only 1% of the poultry farmers swept the barn daily, 60% swept weekly, 16% swept monthly, and 23% rarely. The majority of poultry farmers (60%) washed water troughs weekly. However, only 22% used soap or detergent for washing. The sanitary vacuum is a sanitation operation on the farm that includes disinsectization, deratting, cleaning, and disinfection of the poultry house and its surroundings. In the present study, 17% of the farmers practiced sanitation by changing the location of the barn, spreading hot ash in the barn, or incinerating the barn. Approximately 31.5% of the farmers stated that they had vaccinated their animals at least once and only against Newcastle disease. Vaccination of poultry against Newcastle disease usually occurs during the free vaccination campaign for livestock (cattle, sheep,
goats, and camels) in December. This prophylaxis operation is carried out by state services and private actors, including breeding auxiliaries, for 0.09-0.17 USD per poultry. Nevertheless, periodic vaccination operations are organized and financed with the support of nongovernmental organizations and livestock development projects in their areas of intervention.
Animal care
To treat poultry diseases, 85% of the poultry farmers responded that they provided therapeutic care to the animals. Of these poultry farmers, 35.5% provided veterinary care, 44% used ethnoveterinary methods, 15.5% combined both methods, and 5% used non-conventional treatment with human products. Fake veterinary products were highly accessible to farmers. Due to the porous borders, they were sold in weekly markets at a very affordable cost and came from neighboring countries. The most popular medications were Antiparasitics, dewormers, antibiotics, and vitamins in tablets or sachets. The human medicines were mainly Paracetamol, Metronidazole, and Amoxicillin. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants was commonly used for animal treatment. The herders used different parts of the plant (leaves, bark, root, stem, seeds, and fruits). Some ingredients, such as chili and ash, were also used in the treatment and deworming of poultry. A total of 17 plants from 12 commonly used botanical families were identified in this regard (Table 4).
Table 4. Plants commonly used by poultry farmers for the prevention and treatment of poultry diseases in southern Niger
Vernacular names Scientific names and botanical families Plant organs Diseases
Dogo'n yaro Azadirachta Indica (Méliaceae) Leaves, bark, and seeds Diarrhea, Mites, Infection
Dania Sclerocarya Birrea (Anacardiaceae) Bark, leaves, roots Diarrhea
Faru Lannea Fruticosa (Anacardiaceae) Bark, leaves Diarrhea
Kukuki Sterculia Setigera (Sterculiaceae ) Bark, root Infection
Golo'n zaki Cucumis Metuliferus (Cucurbitaceae) Fruits Apathy, Depression
Aguwa Euphorbia Balsamifera (Euphorbiaceae) Branch Diarrhea, Newcastle disease
Ida'n sanyia Solamum Incanum (Solanaceae) Fruit, Leaves, Stem, Root Newcastle disease, Mites
Ida'n zakara Withania Somnifera (Solanaceae) Leaves, root Nervous disorders
Pfataka Pergularia Tomentosa (Apocynaceae) Leaves, root Respiratory disorders
Duman kada Ipomoea Asarifolia (Convolvulaceae) Leaves Diarrhea, Nervous disorders
Kafurdo Citrullus Colocynthis (Cucurbitaceae) Fruits Diarrhea, Nervous disorders
Kiryia Prosopis Africana (Mimosaceae) Leaves, bark, root Diarrhea, Anorexia, Depression
Bagaruwa Acacia Nilotica (Mimosaceae) Fruit, leaves, bark, root Diarrhea, Mites
Raydoré Cassia Occidentalis (Caesalpiniaceae) Leaves, stem, flowers, roots Prostration, Roundworm, Tapeworm
Gamjy Ficus Platyphylla (Moraceae) Bark, root Apathy, Plague, Infection
Thiédya Ficus Sycomorus (Moraceae) Leaves, bark Diarrhea, Respiratory disorders
Tum-iya Aerva Javanica (Amaranthaceae) Sheets Diarrhea, Roundworm, Tapeworm
Access of poultry farmers to the breeding service
The results of the survey indicated that 97.7% of poultry farmers had physical access to the livestock service. Among these farmers, 53.5% had access to the public service, 18.5% used the private service of proximity, and 25.7% had access to both types of service.
Classification of variables
Following the factorial analysis of the mixed data and their compilation with the ClustOfVar algorithm, eight synthetic variables (SV) were identified based on the 14 source variables introduced, with a cohesion gain of 72.59%. The SV 1 represents the origin of the animals in relation to the type and size of breeding, SV2 corresponds to the agroecological zone, SV3 represents gender, SV4 reflects the main activity of the poultry farmer in relation to his level of education, SV5 corresponds to the poultry breed, SV6 reflects animal care in terms of variety of health care, disease management, and poultry house ownership. Synthetic variable 7 includes prophylaxis, management of dead poultry bodies, and vaccination practices, and SV8 corresponds to access to breeding services. After applying a step-by-step top-down selection based on the contribution to the axes and the quality of the representation of each synthetic variable in PCA, the SV3, SV4, SV6, and SV7 gave the best result with an explained variance of 59.16% of the total variance. Thus, these synthetic variables were selected to participate in the classification of breeding systems.
Classification of breeding systems
The application of the Hierarchical ascending classification (HAC) method on the synthetic variables retained in the PCA led to the classification of the farms into three classes with an explained inertia rate of 65.1%. Figure 2 shows the projection of the colored individuals according to their class in the factorial plane and indicates that the classes are homogeneous and separated from each other. Table 5 shows that the participation of each synthetic variable in the classification of the cluster is significant (p < 0.05). The measure of the intensity of the relationship between the cluster of poultry farmers and each synthetic variable is given by the value of Eta2. Eta2 is a Spearman correlation coefficient that measures the strength of the relationship between the synthetic variables and the clusters. When the value of Eta2 < 0.5, the relationship is weak. When the Eta2 value is between 0.6 and 0.7, the relationship is strong, and when the Eta2 > 0.7, the relationship is very strong. The Eta2 values of the
synthetic variables SV4 and SV6 being higher than 0.7; these synthetic variables have strongly contributed to the classification of the poultry farmers groups.
Table 5. Relationship between the cluster variable of poultry farmers and associated synthetic variables_
Variables Eta2 P-value
VS6 0.86302574 p < 0.05
VS4 0.75380497 p < 0.05
VS7 0.07860523 p < 0.05
VS3 0.03042297 p < 0.05
Factor map
-2 0 2 4
Dim1 (39.3%)
Figure 2. Graphical representation of the classes on axes 1 and 2
Class 1 represented 15.7% of the survey population and is dominated by men (85.11%). The poultry farmers in this class were mostly employed (73.41%) in the secondary and tertiary sectors. They belonged to four socio-professional sub-groups. The largest subgroup (36.17%) included several heterogeneous socio-professional categories, consisting of restaurant workers, pupils, motorcycle cab drivers, agricultural product processors, butchers, tailors, mechanics, carpenters, masons, blacksmiths, tire repairers, workers, marabouts, town criers and traditional practitioners. The second subgroup (29.79%) was made up of public service employees assigned by the state or recruited by the local authorities to serve in the surveyed localities. This subgroup comprised teachers, health workers, rural development workers (agriculture, breeding, and environment), and municipal workers. The third subgroup was farmers (26.6%), and the last and least important subgroup was traders (7.45%). In this class, all the herders were educated (100%). Most of these farmers (84.04%) had a shelter or a henhouse to house the birds at night. In
addition, more than half of them practiced vaccination (56.32%). Regarding the disease, 53.19% of them administered therapeutic care to the animals, and 42.55% opted for sanitary slaughter to minimize the risk of loss. However, some of them engaged in risky behavior by disposing of sick birds by sale (2.13%) or doing nothing (2.13%). Of those who treated sick animals, half (51.06%) used veterinary care, 13.83% used ethnoveterinary medicine, 24.47% combined both methods, and 10.64% used human medications. Regarding the management of dead poultry bodies, 72.34% of the farmers discarded the dead bodies in the wild, while 27.66% incinerated or buried the dead poultry bodies.
Class 2 had the largest number of poultry farmers studied (70.8%), with a dominance of men (73.41%). In this class, the majority of poultry farmers (84.47%) worked in the primary sector (agriculture) and were largely (80.71%) not in school. Most of these farmers (84.04%) had a shelter or a henhouse to house the birds at night. In addition, two-thirds of these farmers (66.65%) practiced vaccination. In case of disease, 61.41% administered care to the animals, while 37.18% eliminated the animals by slaughter. However, a minority of farmers tended to sell sick animals (0.71%) or observed sick
animals without doing anything (0.71%). Regarding the types of therapeutic care, 38.82% of the poultry farmers administered veterinary care, 28.47% used ethnoveterinary medicine, 24.71% combined both methods, and 8% used human products. In this class, 64.24% of the farmers disposed of the dead birds in the wild, 34.35% buried or incinerated the dead birds, and 1.42% consumed the dead bodies.
Class 3 represented 13.5% of the total surveyed population. It was the class with the least number of farmers. In this class, there was a high proportion of women (40.74%). The majority of farmers (82.72%) were employed in the primary sector (agriculture). Considering literacy, 77.55% of them did not attend school. About 70.37% of the poultry farmers had a chicken coop. However, almost all the breeders (98.77%) did not vaccinate their animals. In case of disease, 7.41% of the farmers disposed of the animals by stamping out, 2.47% got rid of birds by selling, and 90.12% did nothing. Regarding the management of poultry corpses, 96.3% of the farmers left poultry corpses in the wild, and 3.7% incinerated or buried poultry corpses. The characteristics of the different classes of traditional poultry farmers in southern Niger are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Characteristics of the different classes of traditional poultry farmers in southern Niger
Variables Modalities Class 1 (%) Class 2 (%) Class 3 (%)
Sex of the breeder Male 85.11 73.41 59.26
Female 14.89 26.59 40.74
Principal activity Agriculture 26.6 84.47 82.72
Trade 7.45 6.82 4.94
Public service 29.79 0.71 1.23
Other activities 36.17 8 11.11
Level of education Koranic school 0 52 34.57
Literacy 0 9.41 9.88
Non-literate 0 19.3 32.1
Primary 2.13 19.29 19.75
Secondary 92.55 0 3.7
Higher 5.32 0 0
Possession of a henhouse Yes 84.04 84.71 70.37
No 15.96 15.29 29.63
Vaccination practice Yes 56.38 66.65 1.23
No 43.62 34.35 98.77
Disease management Treatment 53.19 61.41 0
Sanitary slaughter 42.55 37.18 7.41
Sale 2.13 0.71 2.47
Nothing 2.13 0.71 90.12
Types of care Veterinary medicine 51.06 38.82 0
Ethno-veterinary medicine 13.83 28.47 0
Combination of both methods 24.47 24.71 0
Non-conventional treatment 10.64 8 0
None 0 0 100
Management of corpses Disposal in nature 72.34 64.24 96.3
Incineration or burial 27.66 34.35 3.7
Consumption 0 1.41 0
Class 1: 94 poultry farmers, Class 2: 425 poultry farmers, Class 3: 81 poultry farmers
DISCUSSION
The results of the current study revealed that the practice of traditional poultry farming is dominated by men (73.5%). This trend was previously reported in the results of the General Census of Agriculture and Livestock (RGAC, 2008), indicating that poultry breeding in Niger is practiced by 48% of men, 28% of children, and 24% of women. The findings of the current study are in agreement with the study conducted in Burkina Faso, where Pinde et al. (2020) reported that 70.26% of men practiced poultry farming. Conversely, a Zimbabwean study revealed that 88.9% of women dominated poultry activities (Ndiweni et al., 2013). Small-scale poultry breeding by women has been highly advantageous because the income generated through the sale of poultry and eggs would be under their control, which would enhance their empowerment and help households to overcome financial difficulties (Begum et al., 2019). Gueye (2005) indicated that poultry ownership results from the communities' socio-cultural and religious conditions in most rural areas of Africa.
The present results indicated that 74.2% of the households were engaged in agriculture as their primary activity. Similarly, Talaki et al. (2020) reported that 91.35% of poultry farmers in Togo are employed in the agricultural sector. In the study area, households involved in agriculture or other occupational sectors have diversified into poultry farming to supplement their income. Kalifa et al. (2018) noted that integrating poultry practice into farms is profitable. The reason is that poultry contributes to farm income and organic manure production to fertilize the fields. Poultry in rural areas is a means of saving income that can be easily mobilized to meet the basic needs of households. It serves as a social safety net and solidarity for rural populations (Melesse, 2014; Nahimana et al., 2019).
Regarding the herders' education level, it was found that 67.2% of the herders did not attend school. However, a high proportion (41%) attended Islamic teachings at the Koranic school. The current results contrast with the study conducted in Cote d'Ivoire, where Etienne et al. (2021) recorded that 52.5% of herders had no experience of attending school. The Koranic school is one of the most popular types of school in the Muslim-majority countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. It constitutes the only training and literacy offered for populations marginalized by the formal education system (Meunier, 1995; Stefania, 2003).
The results of the present study contradict the one conducted by Ebwa et al. (2019) in the Democratic
Republic of Congo, indicating that 77% of poultry farmers raised poultry solely for consumption.
Regarding the breeds of poultry raised and the predominance of chicken, the present results are consistent with the study conducted in Burkina Faso by Banse et al. (2017), reporting that almost all producers raised poultry of local breeds with 66% chickens.
Age at the first laying of a hen, number of eggs laid per clutch, number of eggs hatched per brood, and number of egg laying per hen per year are almost identical in the two agroecological zones. With respect to the age at first laying, the present results are close to those reported by Dzogbema et al. (2021) in Togo and Ayssiwede et al. (2013) in Senegal, recording 6.76 and 6.38, respectively. Regarding the number of eggs laid per hen per clutch, the findings of the current study were close to those of Mauritania and Ethiopia, where Ahmed and N' Daw, (2015) and Dassie and Ogle (2001) reported 12.96 and 12.9 eggs per hen per clutch, respectively. The number of eggs hatched per clutch by Dassie and Ogle (2001) in Ethiopia was similar to that of the present research. Concerning the number of broods per hen per year, the obtained results of the current study were comparable to those reported by other authors in Africa (Mwalusanya et al., 2002; Fotsa, 2008; Ayssiwede et al., 2013; Ahmed and N'Daw, 2015; Kibreab et al., 2016; Dzogbema et al., 2021). Generally, the number of broods per hen per year for indigenous African chicken ranges from 3 to 4 (Ahmed and N'Daw, 2015; Kibreab et al., 2016; Dzogbema et al., 2021). However, Mammo et al. (2008) reported a clutch number per hen of 5.06 ± 1.65 per year in Ethiopia.
Avian diseases were the main cause of mortality (93.7%) in the present study. This finding is in agreement with several previous studies. Meskerem (2019) and Otte et al. (2021) reported 67% and 60% disease-related poultry loss in village poultry farming in their studies in Ethiopia and Tanzania, respectively. Meskerem (2019) and Otte et al. (2021) also reported that Newcastle disease accounted for 64% and 54% of the identified diseases.
Regarding animals' origin, the present results are in agreement with a previous study conducted in Nigeria, where Ameji et al. (2012) reported that 64.7% of poultry farmers obtained their breeding stock from the live bird market and other unknown sources.
Present results are close to the study results conducted in Nigeria, where Ajewole et al. (2014) reported that 27.5% of the farmers practiced the quarantine of new birds. As for the isolation of sick birds and regular cleaning of the birds' environment, the current study
contrasts with Ajewole et al. (2014), where 100% of the surveyed farmers regularly cleaned the birds' habitat and practiced the isolation of sick birds. Ndem and Ogba
(2017) indicated that the isolation of sick birds and corpses, movement control, and sanitary practices could be used effectively to prevent poultry diseases.
In the present study, 70% of the poultry farmers surveyed were disposing of dead poultry bodies in the wild. Similar observations were made in a previous study conducted by Abdurrahman et al. (2016) in Nigeria. These authors revealed that 50% of farmers disposed of dead poultry bodies by dumping them in landfills. Guittet et al.
(2018) indicated that this practice is not without risk of the contamination of susceptible animals, the case where the birds' dead bodies are infected.
In terms of medical prophylaxis, 31.5% of the poultry farmers surveyed stated that they had vaccinated their animals only against Newcastle disease. This percentage is relatively low. The emphasis on vaccination against Newcastle disease is justified. This is the most important disease in traditional poultry production. However, the current results agree with those of a previous study conducted in Kenya, where Ezra et al. (2020) reported that 35% of poultry farmers reported having vaccinated their animals. Bessell et al. (2017) indicated that implementing a strategy based on the distribution of vaccines and community awareness of good breeding practices helps to increase the vaccination rate. The traditional system of treating animal diseases is still widely used in remote rural areas where modern veterinary care facilities are scarce or deficient (Phondani et al., 2010). The low cost of ethnoveterinary medicine makes it an alternative to modern medication for traditional poultry farmers (Adebayo et al., 2020). Several authors have documented the use of medicinal plants in the management of poultry diseases (Lagu and Kayanja, 2010; Meskerem, 2019). Some of the plant species identified in the present study have been reported in previous studies with scientific evidence of their use in poultry. The extracts of these plants, including Acacia nilotica, Withania somnifera, and Azadiractha indica have biological activities against Escherichia coli, Staphyllococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and against Newcastle disease and fowl pox viruses (Mohamed et al., 2010; Ashraf et al., 2018). They also act on external parasites and helminths (Carine et al., 2021).
Although the government's policy of bringing the breeding service closer to the breeders, and the surveyed farmers had the best physical access to the breeding service (97.7%), the use of veterinary care (35.5%) and vaccination (31.5%) were relatively low. A previous study
conducted by Asfaw et al. (2021) in Ethiopia found that poultry health services are at minimum due in part to the lack of organized private poultry health service providers available to all and the low financial means of rural poultry farmers to hire private veterinarians. In many rural areas of low- and middle-income countries, the size of the area to be covered and the lack of resources and infrastructure can limit veterinary and extension services. Veterinary services are mostly devoted to crop or ruminant production, with little health care or advice accessible to small-scale poultry farmers (Wong et al., 2017). According to Enahoro et al. (2021), it is essential to improve the distribution channels of good quality drugs and vaccines, strengthen the technical level of poultry farmers, and support stakeholder involvement mechanisms to improve community-based poultry care services.
The typological analysis allowed us to meet one of the objectives of this study, which is to classify traditional poultry breeding farms according to the values of the synthetic variables taken into account in the classification and the significant links established between the groups of individuals. The results of the present study differ from those obtained by Dzogbema et al. (2021), and Pindé et al. (2020) in Togo, and Burkina Faso with regard to the objectives of the study and the variables introduced for the analysis.
CONCLUSION
This survey explored the characteristics of traditional poultry breeding systems in southern Niger and highlighted the variety of breeding systems by considering the socioeconomic aspects of breeders and animal health management (biosecurity, animal care). The main constraints to the current state of production of these types of breeding systems have been identified. To improve the current condition, future research is needed to focus on the control of poultry diseases, particularly Newcastle disease, to reduce mortality. Moreover, more studies should be conducted on adaptable and sustainable biosecurity measures for family poultry farming to reduce the risk of contamination; improvement of the habitat, poultry feed and breeding methods to optimize production; development of veterinary ethnomedicine as an alternative to modern medicine; capacity building for all stakeholders; and dissemination of good poultry practices.
DECLARATION
Acknowledgments
The study was funded by CERSA/UL (Regional Excellence Center on Poultry Sciences of the University of Lomé, Togo). The authors wish to express their warm
gratitude to World Bank IDA 5424, the main sponsor of CERSA.
Authors' contribution
This work was carried out by the contribution of all authors. Ahamidou Moustapha designed the protocol, collected and analyzed data, and draft the manuscript. Akourki Adamou validated the protocol, supervised the data collection and revised the manuscript. Essodina Talaki validated the protocol, supervised the data collection and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical considerations
The authors of the current study have checked ethical issues (including plagiarism, consent to publish, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication and/or submission, and redundancy).
REFERENCES
Abdurrahman HJ, Muhammad BB, Sanusi MB, Yusuf S, and Fatima MB (2016). Biosecurity measures and constraints among rural poultry farmers in Zamfara State, Nigeria. Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 4(4): 47-51. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.11648/i.avs.20160404.11
Adebayo BO, Oladeji JO, Ogunleye KY, and Adejumo AA (2020). Perception of ethno-veterinary medicine among poultry farmers in Oyo State. International Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Research, 7(3): 194-201. DOI:
https://www.doi.org/10.18488/iournal.70.2020.73.194.201
Ahmed MO and N'Daw A (2015). Characterization of the family breeding of the local hen (Gallus gallus) in the region of Trarza in Mauritania. Animal Genetic Resources, 57: 89-97. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S2078633615000284
Ajewole OC and Akinwumi AA (2014). Awareness and practice of biosecurity measures in small scale poultry production in Ekiti State, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 7(11): 24-29. Available at: https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-j avs/papers/vol7-issue 11/Version-1/D071112429.pdf
Alem T (2014). Production and reproduction performance of rural poultry in lowland and midland agroecological zones of central Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(49): 3531-3539. DOI:
https://www.doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2013.7351
Ameji ON, Abdu PA, Sa'idu L, and Isa-Ochepa M (2012). Knowledge of poultry diseases, biosecurity and husbandry practices among stakeholders in poultry production in Kogi State, Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 10(2): 26-64. DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.4314/sokjvs.v10i2.6
Asfaw YT, Ameni G, Medhin G, Gumi B, and Wieland B (2021). Poultry health services in Ethiopia: Availability of diagnostic, clinical, and vaccination services. Poultry Science, 100(6): 101023. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2021.101023
Ashraf A, Mahboob S, Andleeb R, Ijaz MU, and Shah MS (2018). Status updates of Newcastle disease and amelioration effects of medicinal plants against Newcastle disease virus: A review. Acta virologica, 62(1): 3-15. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.4149/av 2018 101
Ayssiwede SB, Dieng A, Houinato MRB, Chrysostome CAAM, Hornick J-L, and Missohou A (2013). Indigenous chickens breeding in Senegal and in sub-Saharan Africa: Current status and constraints. Annales de Médecine Vétérinaire, 157: 103-119. Available at: https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/217744
Bansé O, Jean SZ, and Laya S (2017). Caractéristiques de l'élevage avicole en zone sahélienne du burkina faso. Revue Ivoirienne des Sciences et Technologie, 30: 263-280. Available at: https://revist.net/REVIST 30/REVIST 30 16.pdf
Begum M, Sultana T, and Islam IB (2019). A Critical Overview on Women Entrepreneurship through Poultry farming in Bangladesh", International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 6(6): 888-896. Available at:
https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1907270.pdf
Bessell PR, Kushwaha P, Mosha R, Woolley R, Al-Riyami L, and Gammon N (2017). Assessing the impact of a novel strategy for delivering animal health interventions to smallholder farmers. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 147(1): 108-116. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1016/J.PREVETMED.2017.08.022
Carine HBP, Ezéchiel LM, Sahidou S, Philippe S, Sahidou S, and Chakirath S (2021). Etude in vitro de l'effet nématodicide de l'extrait aqueux de feuilles de Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) sur Ascaridia galli et Haemonchus contortus. Rapport de fin de formation de licence professionnelle en production et santé animales. Ecole Polytechnique d'Abomey Calavi (Bénin). p. 39. Available at: https://biblionumeric.epac-
uac.org:9443/jspui/handle/123456789/4006
Dassie T and Ogle B (2001). Village poultry production systems in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 33(6): 521-537.
DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1023/A:1012740832558
Dedieu B, Faverdin P, Dourmad JY, and Gibon A (2008). Livestock system, a concept for reasoning livestock transformations. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Productions Animales, 21(1): 45-58. DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.20870/productions-animales.2008.21.1.3374
Dolberg F (2003). A review of household poultry production as a tool in poverty reduction with focus on Bangladesh and India. PPLPI Working Paper No. 6. p. 40. DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.23762
Dzogbema KF-X, Talaki E, Lare L, Tchabozire AW, Batawui KB, and Dao BB (2021). Typology and characterization of traditional poultry farming systems in Togo. Journal of World's Poultry Research, 11(4): 446-456. DOI:
https://www.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2021.53
Ebwa J, Monzenga JC, Mosala F, Rutakaza N, and Ebwa J (2019). Aviculture traditionnelle dans la ville de Kisangani, Province de la Tshopo en République Démocratique du Congo. Revue Marocaine des Sciences Agronomiques et Vétérinaires, 7(3): 447-451. Available at:
https://www.agromaroc.com/index.php/Actes IAVH2/article/view/743
Enahoro D, Galiè A, Abukari Y, Chiwanga GH, Kelly TR, Kahamba J, Massawe FA, Mapunda F, Jumba H, Weber C, et al. (2021). Strategies to upgrade animal health delivery in village poultry systems: Perspectives of stakeholders from Northern Ghana and Central Zones in Tanzania. Front Veterinary Sciences, 8: 611357. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.611357
Etienne L, Kouhana S, Brahima S, Xavier R, Boniface K, Issaka YAK, and Valentine YGC (2021). Caractéristiques du système d'exploitation des poulets locaux dans deux zones agro-ecologiques (sud forestier et centre savanicole) de la côte d'Ivoire. European Scientific Journal, 17(40): 240-261. DOI: https://www.doi .org/10.19044/esj .2021 .v17n40p240
Ezra OA, Ombui JN, Onono J, Richard O, and Omasaki SK (2020). Poultry farming and disease management practices in small-scale farmers in Kisii County, Kenya. Global Journal of Science Frontier
Research: D Agriculture and Veterinary, 20(8): 1-8. Available at: https://globaliournals.org/GJSFR Volume20/1-Poultry-Farming-and-Disease.pdf
Fasina FO, Wai MD, Mohammed SN, and Onyekonwu ON (2007). Contribution of poultry farming to household income: The case of Jos South Municipality (Nigeria). Aviculture Familiale, 17(1-2): 30-34. Available at:
https ://www.yumpu. com/fr/document/read/47384332/aviculture-familiale-fao
Fotsa JC (2008). Characterization of local chicken populations (Gallus gallus) in Cameroon. AgroParisTech, docteur d'agroparistech, p. 302. Available at: https://pastel. archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-00004904/document
Guèye EF (2005). Gender aspects in family poultry management systems in developing countries. World's Poultry Science Journal, 61(1): 39-46. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1079/WPS200440
Guittet M, Le Coq H, and Picault JP (2018). Risques de transmission de la maladie de Newcastle par des produits avicoles contaminés. Revue Scientifique et Technique-Office Internationnal des Épizooties, 16(1): 79-82. Available at:
https://nanopdf.com/download/risques-de-transmission-de-la-maladie-de-newcastle-par-des pdf
Haut-Commissariat à l'Initiative 3N (HCI3N) (2012). 3N initiative for sustainable food and nutrition security and agricultural development Nigeriens feed Nigeriens Investment Plan. Vol. I. Available at: http://extwprlegs1 .fao.org/ docs/pdf/ner145 888.pdf
Idi A, Maikano I, and Adamou H (1999). Séroprévalence des maladies de Newcastle et de Gumboro chez des poulets locaux commercialisés à Niamey, Niger. Bulletin du Réseau international pour le développement de l'aviculture familiale, 9(1): 3-5. Available at:
https ://agris.fao. org/agris-search/search. do?recordID=XF2000388691
Idi A, Maikano I, Bako I, Garba D, and Ndomba N (2001). Serological and parasitological survey on local Guinea fowl at village level in Niger. Bulletin du Réseau International Pour le Développement de L'aviculture Familiale, 11(1): 12-18. Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/aq600e/aq600e.pdf
Institut national de la statistique (INS) (2019). Portail RGPH projections démographiques du Niger horizon 2012-2024. Extraction des Données, Available at: https://www. stat-niger.org/ proi ections/
Institut national de la statistique (INS) (2020). Annuaire statistique du Niger 2015-2019. p.256. Available at: https ://www. stat-niger.org/wp-content/uploads/annuaire bulletin/annuaire/Annuaire statististique 2015 20 19 INS 30 09 2021.pdf
Kalifa C, Fernand S, Salimata P, Philippe JN, and Hassan BN (2018). Poultry practices and soil fertility management on farms in western Burkina Faso. Journal of Applied Biosciences, 127: 12770-12784. DOI: https://www.doi .org/10.4314/iab .v127i1.2
Kibreab Y, Zelalem A, Kassa T, Dakamo F, Dessiye T, Hilemariyam G, Fisseha M, Dawit H, Tegbaru G, and Cherinet R (2016). Poultry production, management and marketing system at selected districts of Kafa and Benchmaji Zone, South West Ethiopia. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 6(11): 83-96. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234662027.pdf
Kuentz Simonet V, Lyser S, Candau J, Deuffic P, Chavent M, and Saracco J (2013). Une approche par classification de variables pour la typologie d'observations: Le cas d'une enquête agriculture et environnement. Journal de la Société Française de Statistique, Société Française de Statistique et Société Mathématique de France, 154(2): 37-63. Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00876254
Lagu C and Kayanja FIB (2010). Medicinal plant extracts widely used in the control of Newcastle disease (NCD) and helminthosis among village chickens of South Western Uganda. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22(11): 1-14. Available at:
http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vl-20-lagu.pdf
Lhoste P (1984). Le diagnostic sur le système d'élevage. Diagnostic zootechnique. Les Cahiers de la Recherche-Développement, 3-4:
84-88. Available at: https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins textes/pleins textes 5/b fdi 16-17Z22094.pdf
Mammo M, Berhan T, and Tadelle D (2008). Village chicken characteristics and their seasonal production situation in Jamma District, South Wollo, Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 20(7): 109. Available at: http://www.lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd20/7/meng20109.htm
Melesse A (2014). Significance of scavenging chicken production in the rural community of Africa for enhanced food security. World's Poultry Science Journal , 70(3): 593-606.
DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S0043933914000646
Meskerem AC (2019). Major health constraints and ethno-vet practices of small-scale and backyard chicken production in some selected regions of Ethiopia. Intechopen. In: CS. Rulted and V. Kubale (Editors), Veterinary anatomy and physiology, Volume 3, pp. 1-16. DOI: http://www.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81302
Meunier O (1995). Enseignements de base, politiques d'éducation et stratégies éducatives en milieu haoussa: le cas de la ville de Maradi (Niger). Les stratégies éducatives en Afrique subsaharienne. Cahiers des Sciences Humaines, 31(3): 617-634. Available at: https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-
doc/pleins textes/pleins textes 4/sci hum/42915.pdf
Ministère de l'agriculture et de l'élevage (MAG/EL) (2020). Plan national de développement de la filière aviculture. PNDF Aviculture Niger 2020-2035. p.110. Available at: https://duddal.org/s/bibnum-promap/item/8487
Mohamed IET, El Nur EBES, and Abdelrahman MEN (2010). The antibacterial, antiviral activities and phytochemical screening of some Sudanese medicinal plants. EurAsian Journal of BioSciences, 4(2): 8-16. Available at:
http://lymeaware.free.fr/lyme/Phytotherapie/ejob-9-25-4-2-8-16-1.pdf
Moula N, Detiffe N, Farnir F, Antoine-Moussiaux N, and Leroy P (2012). Aviculture familiale au bas-Congo, république démocratique du Congo (RDC). Livestock Research for Rural Development, 24(5): 74. Available at:
http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd24/5/moul24074.htm
Moussa HO, Keambou TC, Issa S, Hima K, Adamou MLI, and Bakasso Y (2020). Morpho-biometric characterization of local chicken population in Niger. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 13(2): 211-224.
DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2020.13.2.0369
Mwalusanya NA, Katule AM, Mutayoba SK, Mtambo MMA, Olsen JE, and Minga UM (2002). Productivity of local chickens under village management conditions. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 34: 405-416. DOI:
https://www.doi.org/10.1023/A:1020048327158
Nahimana G, Ossebi W, Missohou A, and Ayssiwede SB (2019). Analyse de l'importance socio-économique de l'aviculture familiale dans le Département de Salemata au Sénégal. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 13(7): 3131-3143. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i7.13
Ndem JU and Ogba EI (2017). Biosecurity measures needed by rural poultry farmers for effective disease prevention. International Journal of Advances in Agricultural Science and Technology, 4(4): 17-28. Available at: https://ijaast.com/publications/vol4issue4/V4I402.pdf
Ndiweni NJ (2013). Prudent poultry farming as a source of livelihood and food security in a changing climate: The case of Zhombe communal lands, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(10): 1-5. Available at: http://www.ij srp.org/research-paper-1013/ij srp-p2293 .pdf
Otte J, Rushton J, Rukambile E, and Alders RG (2021). Biosecurity in village and other free-range poultry-trying to square the circle? Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8: 678419. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.678419
Pagès J (2004). Analyse factorielle de données mixtes. Revue de Statistique Appliquée, 52(4): 93-111. Available at: http://archive.numdam.org/article/RSA 2004 52 4 93 0.pdf
Peyre de Fabregues B (1979). Lexique de noms vernaculaires de plantes du Niger, second edition provisoire. Volume 1. Noms scientifiques-noms vernaculaires. p. 156. Available at: https://agritrop.cirad.fr/355446/ 1/document 355446.pdf
Phondani PC, Maikhuri RK, and Kala CP (2010). Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants among traditional herbal healers in Alaknanda Catchment of Uttarakhand, India. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 7(3): 195-206. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v7i3.54775
Pindé S, Tapsoba ASR, Traoré F, Ouédraogo R, Ba S, Sanou M, Traoré A, Tamboura HH, and Simporé J (2020). Caractérisation et typologie des systèmes d'élevage de la poule locale du Burkina Faso. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 46(2): 8212-8225. DOI: https://m.elewa.org/Journals/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/6.Pinde .pdf
Recensement général de l'agriculture et du cheptel (RGAC) (2008). Résultats définitifs. Dimension genre elevage sédentaire. Volume. 8, p. 118. Available at:
https://www.instepp.umn.edu/sites/instepp.umn.edu/files/product/downloada ble/Niger 2005-07 Vol8a.pdf
Scanes CG (2007). Contribution of poultry to quality of life and economic development in the developing world. Poultry Science, 86(11): 2289-2290. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-86-11-2289
Souley MM, Ibrahim AI, Bachir SK, Alassane A, Rahila I, Bachir Y, Hadiza A, Hama H, Hassane A, Nourou A, et al. (2021). Co-circulation of genotypes XIV.2 and XVIII.2 of avian paramyxovirus-1 (Newcastle disease virus) in backyard poultry in Niger. Virus Genes, 57: 100-105. DOI:
https://www.doi .org/10.1007/s11262-020-01804-x
Stefania G (2003). L'enseignement Islamique en Afrique Noire. Cahiers d'études Africaines, 43(169-170): 261-277. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.199
Talaki E, Dzogbema KFX, Adjrah Y, and Tona K (2020). Current status of family poultry production in Togo. International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(12): 568-576.
DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.568.576
Wata SI, Mahamane A, and Ousseini I (2012). La surveillance écologique et environnementale au Niger: Un instrument d'aide à la décision. In: M. Requier-Desjardins, N. Ben Khatra, D. Nedjraoui, I. Wata Sama, M. Sghaier, and M. Briki (Editors), Surveillance environnementale et développement. Acquis et perspectives: Méditerranée, Sahara et Sahel. Montpellier, CIHEAM / OSS. pp. 219 -230. Available at:
http://om.ciheam.org/article.php?IDPDF=00006629
Wong JT, de Bruyn J, Bagnol B, Grieve H, Li M, Pym R, and Alders RG (2017). Small-scale poultry and food security in resource-poor settings: A review. Global Food Security, 15: 43-52. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.04.003
