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"BIG TERROR" AND THE RESEARCH OF THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC: SCIENTIFIC SEARCHES AND TRAGEDY OF DESTINIES
Abstract
The relevance of the problem is caused by an escalating role of the Arctic for world development and need of profound scientific study and discussion of historical experience of development of the region. The purpose of the paper is to reconstruct the overall picture of carrying out "Big terror" concerning the scientists researching the Russian Arctic. The leading approach to the research is the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity and systemacity, use of a number of special methods of historical knowledge. The author reveals the main events in the history of Northern scholars repressions and defines the "Big terror" consequences for scientific studying of the Russian Arctic. The paper can be useful to studies on history of political repressions in Russia and the Arctic, special courses for students of higher educational institutions.
Keywords
Arctic, Russia, Yakutia, scientific researches, expeditions, repressions
AUTHOR
Alexander Suleymanov
PhD, senior scientific researcher, The Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studies of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, 1, Petrovskogo Str, Yakutsk, 677007, Russia
Introduction
Recently the Arctic draws special attention of researchers, public and statesmen, representatives of mass media. The appeal of the region increasing from year to year is connected with a strategic importance of its transport arteries, richness of resources - a factor which gains the increasing value in process of catastrophic reduction of nonrenewable minerals, on the one hand, and growth of requirements of society - on the another. Profound scientific studying and discussion of historical experience of development of this region has to become one of the channels for implementation of a purposeful state policy in protection of the national interests in the Arctic.
One of the brightest and, at the same time, tragic pages in history of Russian development and studying the Arctic are the 1930s. This period became the time of withdrawal pains of millions of human destinies and the ethic cultural values formed for centuries, formation of the totalitarian state and blossoming of the huge repressive device. At the same time, during this period there was increasing interest to development and scientific studying of the Earth northern areas in the country. The memory about it reached us in epithets "papaninets", "chelyuskinets" and "sedovets". However, despite this
interest, actively stirred by the Soviet promotion, "Big terror" also concerned scientists, whose activity was connected with exploration of the Arctic.
Methodological base
The methodological base of the paper are the principles of histiricism, scientific objectivity and systemacity. Special methods of knowledge were used to solve the objectives: historical-typological, historical-comparative and retrospective analysis.
Results and discussion
The existing historiography is presented by researches, devoted to separate plots from history of the considered perspectives. In particular, there are works describing biographies of a number of the researchers, who suffered from repressions (V. S. Adrianov, E.A. Kreynovich, V. I. Tsintsius, etc.). The history of the separate organizations (Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Head department of the Northern Sea Route, Institute of peoples of the North) in the Russian Arctic in the 1930s was analyzed. Besides, the study of the subject singled out a number of scientific and popular scientific articles describing destinies of polar explorers in the years of repressions. The paper makes the first attempt to present an overall picture of carrying out "Big terror" concerning the Arctic scientists in the context of its consequences for scientific studying of the region. At the same time, the limited framework of the research allows to outline the main contours of the specified perspective. I hope that the provided data allow to experience scales of the disaster, which captured the Russian science those years.
It is well known that scientists were one of the first professional communities, which underwent purposeful repressions in the USSR. The so-called "Academic business" was inspired in 1929. In its framework the number of organizers and participants of the Yakut complex expedition Academies of Sciences of the USSR 1925-1930 - the largest research initiative of the time - considerably suffered. For example, P. V. Vittenburg, professor and scientific secretary of the Commission studying the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (CYR) being engaged organization of researches and S. V. Bakhrushin, the participant of the expedition, the corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR were arrested. Ya. N. Rostovtsev, the editor of the CYR publishing house was sentenced on 10 years of labor camps; the researcher A.A. Byalynitsky-Birulya - on 3 years. S.F. Oldenburg, managing affairs of the Academy of Sciences, and D. N. Halturin, the member of the CYR presidium, who played the major role in the solution of financial questions of expedition had to be retired. According to the academician A.G. Granberg, the repressions became one of the main reasons for turning of the academic researches in Yakutia in the 1930s (Granberg, 2005).
Practically along with the Yakut complex expedition, the Academy of Sciences organized studies in the other regon of the Russian Arctic - the Kola Peninsula.
The foundation to systematic studying of the Hibinsky massif was laid in the spring 1920. The special commission with two outstanding geologists - the president of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.P. Karpinsky and the director of the Mineralogical museum, academician A.E Fersman visited the territory of the modern Murmansk region, and at that time the Kola (Aleksandrovsky) district of the Arkhangelogorodskaya province. In August 1920 A.E. Fersman arrived to Hibinsky mountains as the head of the first academic expedition. In 1921, the researchers found the first blocks of apatite ores here, and in 1923 they found apatite scatterings. In 1926, A.N. Labuntsov opened the first large-scale radical deposit of this mineral. In 1927, the Academy of Sciences of the USSR established the special Commission for studying of productive forces of the Kola Peninsula, which was headed by A.E. Fersman. Since 1928 the academic researches here were part of the Kola complex expedition. In August 1929, the experts drilled the first prospecting well and got
a pilot batch of apatite-nepheline ores. As a result, in three months the governmental decreed about the organization of the region's first mining trust "Apatit" and the building of the Hibinogorsk city began (in 1934 it was renamed into Kirovsk)
So frequent mention of the word "first" illustrates the processes happening on the Kola Peninsula. The events of the 1920s gave the impulse, which turned the peninsula into one of the main sources of raw materials for the heavy industry of the Soviet Union.
The called progress gave the chance to organize Hibinsky mountain station on the Kola Peninsula. The station was open on July 19 1930. The head of the station became the academician A.E. Fersman. The same year A.E. Fersman found sulphidic copper-nickel ores in Moncha Tundra; A.A. Grigoriev found in the Lovozersky area large-scale deposits of diatomite - rock, which glorified and enriched Alfred Nobel using it for dynamite production; N. N. Gutkova opened in Khibiny Mountains radical fields of a new mineral -the lovchorrit (called after the mountain Lovchorr on the Kola Peninsula) subsequently applied when receiving strontium and cerium.
Further growth of scales and value of the researches conducted by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on the Kola Peninsula, vigorous lobbying of the Kola complex expedition interests by S. M. Kirov led to creation of the first full-fledged stationary academic structure in the Russian Arctic in 1934 - the Kola Base Academy of Sciences of the USSR. However, it could work normally for a little more than two years - in 1937 the base was covered by a wave of "Big terror". It began with dismissal of I.D. Chernobayev, the vice-chairman of the base, who was actually directing all its current activity. He "was exempted from work on the Kola base since March 1, 1937 ". After that the scientist was arrested, declared as "the enemy of the people" and "wrecker", who " led the base to disorder during 1936 and 1937 ". The further destiny of I.D. Chernobayev is unknown (Makarova, 2008).
The "unhealthy" situation on the Kola Base Academy of Sciences of the USSR began to be discussed in local newspapers "Kirovsky Rabochy", "Polyarnaya pravda", etc. In reply the traditional public "repentances" from employees of the "accused" institution began. V. H. Daragan, S. L. Lutsky and N. A. Avrorin agreed with correctness of critical notes, "exposing a situation on the base" and drew an optimistic conclusion that "the live Soviet stream finally broke the Kola Base Academy of Sciences ...". Manager of geological and geochemical department of the base A.N. Labuntsov approved full wellbeing of the base division and referred to the objective reasons of non-performance of the plan at the meeting at the beginning of 1937. In some months he recognized "big shortcomings of work of geological sector".
In August, 1937 to the Kola base arrived the HR officer of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR T.T. Baryshev, who found "the largest wreckers", «sat down» in the academic council bases. Fulfilling duties of the scientific secretary after arrival, on January 15, 1938 he dismissed "for work disorder" the "pseudoscientific" and "low-skill" employee (PhD, opener of a number of fields) A.N. Labuntsov, from which arrest rescued, apparently, only the V. I. Vernadsky's protection. Then the head of zoogeographical (biocenotic) department of the base V. Yu. Fridolin - the unique specialist in complex studying of interaction of various representatives of the Kola Peninsula fauna - was dismissed (the further destiny of this scientist is unknown). The chief of the economoc department G. N. Solovyanov was declared as "easy rider"; he was fired and arrested (he was released only in 3 years) (Tarakanov, 2011). The manager of the base museum V. H. Daragan, occupying a position of the scientific secretary before T.T. Baryshev, was also forced to leave the Kola base, Makarova, 2009). Also one of active participants of the Kola complex expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, opener of apatite fields, geologist B. M. Kupletsky was repressed. He, fortunately, could receive rehabilitation during lifetime of I.V. Stalin, then continued the research activity and in 1945 received an academic degree of the
doctor of geological and mineralogical sciences. In 1950 he was awarded F.Yu. Levinson-Lessing prize.
The provided data, when during "cleaning" of personnel structure of the base, 3 of 5 heads of department and its actual head suffered, allow to present scales of the disaster, which comprehended this academic structure. Thus it is necessary to mention such wild fact as critical responses for the scientific works executed within a year by employees of the base were addressed to the investigator of regional prosecutor's office (Tarakanov, 2011). The devastating article "Idle Base of the Academy of Sciences", printed on November 25, 1938 in "Truth" crowned the persecution.
The large researches of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR also took place in the Northern region, neighboring the Kola Peninsula (the territory of the modern Komi Republic, the Arkhangelsk and Vologda Regions) in the 1930s. The important place was allocated for botanical works. So, in 1932 two academic groups, Eneysky and Yusharsky, carried out the researches in Bolshezemelskaya Tundra. The Eneysky group investigated its central part along a meridional route from the coast of the Barents Sea to the northern border of a forest zone with near 400 km extension. During this route, scientists defined types of tundra, established approximate quantitative and specific indices of flora, differentiated the surveyed pastures on seasons of use and defined approximate deer capacity of the area. Besides, the experts collected a herbarium of the higher and sporous plants, studied fish resources of fresh reservoirs and carried out barometric leveling of the district. The Yusharsky group made researches on a route the Yugorsky Strait - basin of the Kara river - the river Adzva - village of Hoseda-Hard. Its participants carried out typological research of tundra, allocated five botanic-geographical subbands and studied their fodder resources. Management of these researches was performed by F.V. Sambuk, the employee of the Botanical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Shishkin, 1932).
F.V. Sambuk was the large specialist in tundra flora and cervine pastures. After works in the Northern region, which allowed to fill considerable volumes of "white spots" in scientific knowledge of vegetation of these territories, he continued the researches of the Arctic regions of Russia on Taimyr. On their basis, the scientist prepared the doctoral dissertation in 1937. However, in fall 1937, F.V. Sambuk was arrested. On one data, he was shot in November, 1937, on another - he was lost in 1942 in one of the camps, settling down in the territory of the modern Komi Republic, which studying took an important place in his scientific researches. Memory about this person is immortalized in names of two species of plants. One name A.I. Tolmachev, the head of the academic researches in the Northern region, devoted to the colleague after F.V. Sambuk's rehabilitation in 1957.
During the considered period the most interesting archaeological researches were also organized on the territory of the Russian Arctic. The message about a find of the remained corpses of mammoths in the Yamal national (Nenets) district preceded them. For the studies Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (ZIS) held expedition. The archeologist V. S. Adrianov (Institute of Anthropology, Archeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR) and the laboratory assistant Frolov (ZINS) took part in the expedition. At the same time, the expedition was engaged in collecting samples of modern fauna of the region, archaeological investigation and excavation (if possible).
The researchers arrived to the expedition base to the settlement New Port in spring 1935. Near the settlement they performed biological part of works: noted 63 types of animals and birds living here, collected the fauna collection including about 300 samples, with which Frolov returned to Leningrad.
In the middle of July, when "tundra was cleared of snow", V. S. Adrianov went from New Port to an estimated place of mammoths' burial. On the way the scientist made
shooting of a route part, made ethnographic supervision: described the cult places and funeral ceremonies of the Nenets connected with tradition of a double funeral, when the people, who died in winter, were reburied in summer. Having arrived to the location of corpses of fossil animals, V. S. Adrianov established that the majority of them are of a secondary bedding (i.e. are postponed from other places by the sea), and safety of mammoths was very bad -only skeletons or separate fragments remained (Adrianov, 1937).
After performance of the main task, V. S. Adrianov and 10 workers started archaeological investigation and excavation of the ancient settlement in the mouth of the Poluy river in 5 km from Salekhard. On a small platform in 300 square meters the scientist found 12 thousand subjects, including 1,5 thousand hand-made articles from bone, bronze and stone. The work helped to find the set of finds connected with economic activity (pottery fragments, fragments of arrows, hooks for knitting, buckles, spoons from bone, etc.), objects of art - sculptures and drawings representing "samples of a fine craftsmanship". All that allowed V. S. Adrianov and his colleagues from the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR conclude that material culture of the found two-thousand-year settlement of the early Iron Age had the superiority over the culture of modern aboriginals of the district (the Nenets, the Khanty) (ARAS).
No wonder that the next year V. S. Adrianov was sent again to the Salekhard area for another archaeological works. This time, Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography of Academy of Sciences of the USSR sent him.
As a result of new researches, the scientist delivered 11034 subjects to Leningrad. There was a rich variety of pottery fragments, bone rakes, knives, harpoons, jails, armor-clad plates, hooks, adaptations for attachment of dogs, scrapers for skin, arrows, sickles and other finds. At the same time, V. S. Adrianov collected extensive collections of ritual and cult subjects of the Khanty of the Salekhard area, brought the negatives and prints of photos made during the stay at the Khanty and the Nenets (Reshetov, 2011).
The scientist returned from expedition on September 29, 1936 and started for edition of the materials received during the researches. Both the Soviet archeologists, and their foreign colleagues waited for his publications (the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago requested photos and drawings of excavations, the Copenhagen Museum expected the exchange of the found subjects and its collection) (Reshetov, 2011). V. S. Adrianov's article published shortly before the return in the Pravda newspaper emphasized the success of expedition. However, soon the director of Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR N. M. Matorin and other high-ranking staff of the institute were arrested. On November 6, 1936, V. S. Adrianov was also arrested by the bodies of People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs of the USSR "as the active participant of counterrevolutionary Trotskyi-Zinovyev terrorist organization, which committed S. M. Kirov's murder". The visiting session of the Military board of the Supreme Court of the USSR sentenced the scientist to a capital punishment on December 19,1936. On the same day at the age of 32 years Adrianov was shot. In 21 years, on June 27, 1957, the Military board of the Supreme Court of the USSR completely rehabilitated V. S. Adrianov (Formozov, 1998). V. S. Adrianov discovered Ust-Poluyskaya archaeological culture during the excavations in 1935-1936 and gave it this name. But the Soviet science assigned the authorship of the discovery to V. N. Chernetsov, who started large-scale field works on Yamal in the second half of 1940s.
The scientists called above worked in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR - the largest scientific institution of the country. However, the situation was nearly the same in the other research structures.
The fate of employees of a number of divisions of the Head Department of the Northern Sea Route (HDNSR), the organization which is specially created by the Soviet
authorities for development of the Arctic, became one more sad page of history. In 1930s, this structure incorporated the enormous volume of functions, including research of the northern regions of the Soviet Union and it was the main addressee of financial and political support from the state among all establishments researching the Arctic.
In particular, according to the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of All-Union Communist "About actions for development of the Northern Sea Route and northern economy" on July 20, 1934, divisions of HDNSR acquired some kind of "primae noctis" right to research the whole Asian North before other research organizations of the Soviet Union, including the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
As a result, in the 1930s, the structures of the HDNSR only in Yakutia held the largest Leno-Hatangsky expedition (180 participants), Special Indigirskaya and Yanskaya complex expeditions carried out the researches of hydrography of Olenek, Khatanga, Anabar, Lena, Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma and the geological works on search of coalfields, gold, tin, polymetals, oil, etc.
For example, during "Big terror" in 1938, 13 people were arrested, 62 - "were withdrawn from the department" and 149 - were dismissed as "alien elements" from the Hydrographic management of HDNSR (Boyakova, 1995). Among the arrested there was the head of the department P. V. Orlovsky. In 1934, this researcher headed Karskaya and the Second Lenskaya's works of transport expeditions. In two years he directed hydrographic expedition by icebreaking steamship "Sedov", during which seven islands in N ordenskiold Archipelago were open. In "gratitude" the authorities sentenced the talented polar explorer for 8 years of concentration camps, which cracked his health (Kanevski, 2003). The leading expert of the Hydrographic management of HDNSR, the chief of Yansky hydrological group of the mentioned Yakut complex expedition of 1925-1930 P. K. Hmyznikov was condemned for 5 years of camps for "participation in the anti-Soviet organization". The researcher hadn't returned from prison (Lar'kov, 2007). It should be noted that actually after the carried-out repressions, HDNSR already never possessed any more those opportunities and resources, which it possessed till 1937.
Acting at HDNSR the All-Union Arctic Institute lost the management during "cleanings". In May 1938, the director of institute, professor R. L. Samoylovich was arrested and next year he was shot. He was one of the leading organizers of the Arctic research in the Soviet Union, the Krasin ice breaker chief of the legendary expedition on rescue U. Nobile in 1928. In the 1930s, he was the head of the expeditions on "Rusanov", "Sedov" and "Sadko". Practically at the same time R. L. Samoylovich's deputy N.N. Urvantsev was arrested under the article "wrecking and participation in the counterrevolutionary organization". Urvantsev was doctor of geological and mineralogical sciences, opener of Norilsk copper-nickel field. The scientist was condemned for 15 years of labor camps and in the 1940s he took part in the searches of uranium ores for the first Soviet atomic bombs on Taimyr. The repressions affected the ordinary staff of the AllUnion Arctic Institute. The research associate F.I. Balabin conducting the researches on Rudolf's Earth in 1932-1933 was accused of participation in the counterrevolutionary espionage and terrorist organization and he was shot in July, 1938 (Kanevski, 2003; Lar'kov, 2007).
The similar fate comprehended other organizations specializing on the Arctic researches - the Polar Institute of Scientific Fishery and Oceanography (PISFO) and Institute of Peoples of the North.
In the 19030s, employees of PISFO revealed places of spawning of trade types fishes in the Barents Sea, carried out the first oceanographic shoot of its southern part, made the first forecasts of catch of bottom fish faunas. However, the successful research activity did not stop the repressions. In August, 1933, the group of "wreckers" was found
in PISFO. The chief of the expedition of the institute M. S. Idelson was condemned for 3 years. In December 3, 1937, the Commission of People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs and the Prosecutor of the USSR sentenced the director of the institute G. I. Hlynovsky, his deputy on science M.P. Osadchikh and the employee R. S. Korobkina to a capital punishment. Next year, the PISFO deputy director V. V. Zaostrovsky was accused of espionage and sent for 8 years in camp (Lar'kov, 2007).
At the Institute of Peoples of the North, urged to become "smithy" of shots for native ethnos of the Russian Arctic, Ya.P. Koshkin, E.A. Kreynovich, N. F. Prytkova, N. I. Spiridonov, I.S. Sukorkin, A.S. Forstein, V. I. Tsintsius, etc. were arrested in 1937. Behind some of these names there were whole directions of scientific researches. For example, E.A. Kreynovich actually remained the only specialist in scientific studying of the Yukaghir language up to the 1960s and V. I. Tsintsius was the largest in the USSR researcher of the Evens language.
Conclusion
The repressions of scientific community in the 1930s caused huge damage to the Russian science and, in particular, to the Arctic researches. As a result, the personnel potential of the Soviet North was considerably weakened; the largest experts were pulled out from science or lost for years; the development of the major research problems was slowed down or paralyzed; the atmosphere of scientific creativity was poisoned. At the same time, the researches in the Russian Arctic did not stop in such unhealthy conditions and allowed to fill up baggage of knowledge of this unique region of the planet.
Recommendations
The received results can be useful to studies on history of political repressions in Russia and the Arctic, special courses for the students who are trained in "the Arctic Regional Studies" direction.
REFERENCES
Adrianov, V.S. (1937) Deep into History, Expeditions of the Academy of Sciences of USSR in 1935, Moscow-Leningrad, pp. 104-107.
Boyakova, S.I. (1995) Glavsevmorput in the exploration and development of the North of Yakutia (1932 -June 1941). Novosibirsk, Nauka Publ., p. 19-51.
Formozov, A.A. (1998) Russian archaeologists and Political Repression 1920 - 1940-ies, Russian Archeology, Vol. 3, pp. 191-206.
Granberg, A.G. (2005) On the development of the Productive Forces of Yakutia. On the 80th anniversary of the Yakut Complex Expedition, Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 12, p. 1134.
Kanevski, Z., Kiselev, A. (2003) Travel from Siberia to Siberia, Living Arctic, May, pp.158-169.
Lar'kov, S. (2007) "Public Enemies" within the Arctic Circle (Materials to the study of repression against Soviet polar explorers), "Public Enemies" within the Arctic Circle. Moscow, Sergei Vavilov Institute for the istory of natural science and technology publ, p. 7-92.
Makarova, E.I. (2008) Forgotten Names from the History of the Academy of Sciences of USSR Kola Base, Tietta, Vol. 6, pp. 15-16.
Makarova, E.I. (2009) History of of the Academy of Sciences of USSR Kola Base in 1930-ies, Tietta, Vol. 7, p. 11.
Reshetov, A.M. (2011) Soviet archaeologist and ethnographer Vasily Stepanovich Adrianov "Life interrupted on the rise", Museum, Vol. 8, pp. 40-43.
Shishkin, B. (1932) Tundra vegetation of the Northern Region, Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of USSR, Vol. 13. pp. 133-136.
Tarakanov, M.A. (2011) Economic Research in the Kola Base and their resumption in the Academy of Sciences of USSR Kola Branch (N.M. Totskiy, G.N. Soloviyanov, I.T. Kuz'minov, B.I. Kogan), Bulletin of the Kola Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 103-104.
The Archive of The Russian Academy of Sciences (ARAS). F. 142. Op. 1. D. 1. L. 5.
THE SPECIFICS OF A SOCIAL-POLITICAL PARADIGM IN THE UKRAINIAN PRINT MEDIA
IN THE PROCESS OF THEIR PRIVATIZATION
Abstract
The relevance of the studied problem is caused by change of theoretical bases of functioning of the print media, which are subject to privatization in connection with reconsideration of their role in the Ukrainian society. The purpose of the paper is to study these processes as there is an actual requirement to define specifics of social transformations, in which the press develops. That has serious prerequisites for a specification of a paradigm of its functioning in mono- and multifunctional media spaces. The analysis of change of social-political and social-creative paradigms is the leading research method that allows to build hierarchy of preferences of reader's audience, to staticize change of concepts of formation and transformation of typological structure of the reformed mass media in connection with their commercialization. There is reconsideration of their place in system of the market relations to create steady convergent model allowing to provide realization of constitutional right of people on receiving reliable information. The main result of the research is development of concrete recommendations to create this model taking into account scientific theories and practical advice of media specialists. The paper can be useful for students studying journalism, editors and managers of the reformed editions.
Keywords
media space, social monitoring, convergent model, communicative system, paradigm approach, functional coherence
AUTHOR Gennady Senkevich
PhD, Associate Professor, Oles Honchar Dnipropetrovsk national university, Dnepropetrovsk, 72, Gagarina Avenue, Dnipropetrovsk, 49010, Ukraine. E-mail: gen.senkevich@mail.ru
Introduction
Relevance of the problem
The Law of Ukraine "About reforming the government and municipal print media" came into force Since January 1, 2016. 555 existing domestic editions acquired the right to conduct economic activity independently in the conditions of market economy. Process of privatization assumes two stages, when within several years the former regional editions have to improve the relations with former founders, having occupied a corresponding niche in the regional media space. The special road map was developed. It urged to soften the situation called by many journalists as a shock therapy. Further, there
