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Yevangelos MOUTSOPOULOS UDC 1(091):330.811.1
ARISTOTLE ON MORAL AND ECONOMIC CRISES
Abstract
The 24 centuries that separate us from Aristotle despite the historical world changes that have occurred in the meantime, have by no means tarnished the value of his suggestions for to curing the ills that strike human societies.
Keywords: Aristotle, corruption, crisis, judgement, justice, mendiety, value, virtue.
The Aristotelian value of mediety has often been transgressed during the last decades by competent authorities in economy and finance. It is due to their actions that the crisis which today plagues our societies has derived. What kind of treatment would Aristotle have suggested in this case? I shall try to explore, among the Stagirite's doctrines, how he would conceive the problems of our human present and what processes he would recommend in order to solve them.
Aristotle's Politics, combined with his Ethics, furnish us with precise indications on the causes of the calamities that be set mankind in its quasi totality. The disequilibrium between technological evolution, developing exponentially, and the shortfall of education in the field of the humanities and of culture stresses the distinction, of Aristotelian origin, between the mentalities of the slave and the master. Aristotle says that the slave is deprived not of reason1 but only of the faculty of deliberation, which is acquired thanks to education, to which capital importance is assigned (at the end of the Politics)2. Consequently, the slave is incapable of setting as the aim of his life what is beyond his immediate needs for his survival, in contrast with the free citizen, who goes forward to the pursuit of fur-
1 Cf. Politics, a 13, 1260 b 5-6.
2 Cf. ibid, mainly in books 0 and I.
ther aims that presuppose the former aims as the means for their accomplishment. This difference becomes decisive as regards the weaknesses of the slave group, who depend on the representatives of the citizen group, able to activate themselves and to manage money in order to enrich themselves. This allows them at least, to hire the services of the slaves, when to not exploiting them. Nevertheless, the economic development of individuals, reflected in the well-beng of the whole city, has its limits. Here again the value of mediety is to be considered. The continuous economic development of some cities suffers due to the behavior of their public authorities, which act as if they were dominated by a mentality becoming to slaves. More precisely, they are exclusively interested in perspectives of immediate gain and not in longer-term, and no doubt not exclusively financial ones. They do not even think to take advantage of their city's actual wealth, not as a purpose in itself, but as a means of reaching more distant aims, such as real and lasting happiness3, leaving aside a tendency of administrators to seek for quick profile, honors and other personal advantages. Instead, their major care ought to be to respect the city's laws without ever diverging from them4. Such respect is a supreme virtue that per-
3 Cf. ibid, A 1, 1252 b 29-30.
4 Cf. ibid, Г 4, 1277 b 24-26; Г 13, 1283 a 39-40.
2(5), 2015
mits, without any impediment, the well-being of all the citizens, the optimal and ultimate purpose of life5.
A useful administrator governs virtuously, and in keeping with justice. His or her dominant virtue is prudence equivalent to sagacity, and complementing it, without, of course, being identifiable with it. According to the philosophy of kairicity, prudence consists in foreseeing, in patiently waiting and in acting at the night time. One can now understand the importance of Aristotle's formulation. What follows will be no more than footnotes.
After 1973, China opened herself to foreign investment, and American capital flooded the Far East while the American market was inundated by cheap products that weakened the industry of the New World. China, in fact, still holds the major part of American public shares. The American administration has had recourse to printing paper money without restraint, not directly, but through private institutions, and satisfied banking with a low percentage as taxation, while various owners of capital have recourse to their tax havens. The American example has been followed by the rich countries of the Eurozone, which have invested their capital in countries with suitable production costs, and underdeveloped and weakly governed, Greece as well. She has been deprived of means of development, and, of course, of the right to print paper money, while grants, salaries and gratifications of every kind have dizzily multiplied, with tragic results due to the preference of successive governments for chosen categories of citizens. In December 2000, a law was voted in the United States, whereby banking institutions were allowed to act independently of public administration. I was deeply impressed by a recent statement from a representative of PIMCO, one of the peak American financial organizations: «We have enough speculated about Europe; the moment of truth has come». These predictions of the crisis now hitting our societies eluded the parti-
5 Cf. Eudemian Ethics, A 5, 1216 a 19-27.
sans of globalization, who turned a blind eye, and by politicians, who proved to be all for of a voluntary serfdom.
How would Aristotle have evaluated the present crisis? From an etymological viewpoint, the term крюк;, «crisis», has as its root the verb mpw, «shear», closely linked to the Homeric adjective rntproq, «decisive», and the noun rnipoq, opportune moment. It is, therefore, easily understandable that my interest in the meaning of the term crisis is closely linked to the notion of kairicity, which remains so important to me.
The essential character of every crisis is that it marks a discontinuity within a continuity. Every crisis can be foreseen, but at the beginning is confronted with the indifference, habit. Its evident cause is an exaggerated overrun of Aristotelian mediety, a иРрц, «arrogance», which inevitably, entails a тщпок;6, «retribution», «chastisement»7. No crisis appears invisibly. It is just stated naparntpwq, «long after». Its general trend is due to its opposition to continuity. Aristotle cleverly compares it to the correspondence of the legs, while the individual is in motion8. A lack of correspondence would result from the acceleration of one leg while walking, while the speed of the others remains unchanged, the result being a sliding that, mutandis mutatis, might remind us of Bergson, and the insidious effect on those present, of «something mechanical plated upon something live»9. It is a momentary sliding, since it allows the accident to stand up again, fairly promptly10. All this was al-
6 Cf. Polit., E 8, 1308 b 2 and 6.
7 Cf. ibid, Z 4, 1319 a 19.
8 Cf. Probl. I, 30, and 894 a: ката xgv avTLoroLxLav twv побшу n kLvholc.
9 Cf. On walking of animals, 8, 708 a 11 - b 8; 13; 15; 31. Cf. H. Bergson, Le rire, Paris, Alcan, 1900, p. 29; CTuvres, Paris, P.U.F., 1959, p. 403.
10 On laughter in comedy, cf. Poetics, 4, 1449 a 34: (the ridiculous) aLoxop mi. ацартгща avw6uvov ка1 ou ф9арт1.кбу; cf. ibid, "Opnpop ou փձyov, аЛЛа to ysXolov 6papaTonoLnaap. Cf. Homer, Iliad, A 599: aoPeorop б'
ready envisaged by Aristotle in his Physics, and I shall not dwell on it. It will be sufficient to refer to the crisis of values and the degradation of the virtues that correspond to them.
Indeed, by using the term хРП^аполкп, "financial administration" (Polit., A 3, 1253 b 14; 9, 1257 b 18), instead of the term oiKovopia used by Plato (Republic II, 402 b; VI, 408 a; Laws III, 694 c; VII, 819 a-e) and Xenophon (Oecon., 1, 1), Aristotle innovates in order to stress the distinction between the administration of family funds and public ones, finance. Let me recall Protagoras' motto: navrwv Xpqparwv |i£xpov av0pwnoq, "Man is the measure of everything" (D.-K. Vors.16, fr. B 110, II, 263, 3-5), a relativistic device par excellence, where XPHPa, "means of exchange of goods", etymologically refers to the impersonal verb ХРП, used as an alternative to 5si, "it is necessary". Aristotle's innovation is that here, instead of an egalitarian distribution of goods, as conceived by Plato in his Republic VII, 558 c, he adopts a fiscal model parallel to the judicial one where the egalitarian distribution of goods and charges is completed by a corrective process. His thinking about these issues is scattered throughout the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics. I shall try to gather together in categories, so to be able to draw certain conclusions in about how Aristotle would have confronted a crisis similar to the one we are actually experiencing, mutandis mutatis again.
In principle, a crisis has a duration within a certain time. It sometimes reaches a peak before it fades away, not without having left some wounds. However, such a peak contains several other peaks. In his Physics, Aristotle mentions days of crises11, establishing the concept of crises within crises12.
ap' svwpro ysXwc parnpsaai. 0eolai.v // шс i!5ov T^aLatov 5ւձ awpara mnvuovra («hobbling»). Cf. Rhet, Г 18, 1419 b 2-9: тф ysXoLw nOc 5s! xpna0aL. Cf. Plato, Cratylus, 425 a.
11 Cf. Phys., E 6, 230 b 5.
12 Cf. ibid, A 14, 223 b 17: navra тф xpovw KLvstraL. Cf.
Probl., 26, 14, 941 b 35: rpLrn npspa KpLaipoc; ibid, 10,
3, 859 a 10 and 21: ai. rOv wpwv psraPoXai. KpLvouaL
One, can equally ask whether crises of habits and of values that provoke economic crises as the symptoms are not themselves social diseases needing appropriate treatment. It is clear that within each kairos there are now various microkairoi within the principal crisis.
On the other hand, a Kpiaiq in the sense of "judgment", is not only an element expressing a thought; it is the manifestation of the mental function by which one judges the truth or the falsehood of one's thoughts13. Such a Kpiaiq is essentially a discrimination between different themes14, but it is also a statement about the affinity of "things of a kind"15. As judgment, Kpiaiq presupposes a criterion, which refers, in the case of situations, to a mental measure, but in the case of e.g. sense objects to former experience16. The same occurs in the case of humors17 and of what is tangible18, the tongue being the organ which is criterion of the taste19. For each isolate case (Ka0' EKaara), experience requires a more general criterion, so that the appropriate20 judgment can be understood and above all be controlled as clear and correct; in other words, as not admitting any contest21. As for judgements22 on differential, even of animals, exactitude is to be stated, even if it is not required23. Discrimination and exactitude are also required when stating the difference between identity and similarity24. In the
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20 21 22
23
24
тас vPaouq. Cf. Hist animal. I 19, 553 a 11: ai. rOv vPawv KpLasic.
Cf. De anima, Г 3, 428 a 3.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., I 2, 1163 a 34: rOv 5i^spop£vwv.
Ibid.
Cf. Metaph., K 6, 1063 a 3.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., Г 13, 1118 a 28.
Cf. Phys., A 8, 216 b 19.
Cf. On the parts of animals, A 5, 678 b 8; Hist. of animals, A 8, 535 a 11 Cf. Nicom. Eth., A 11, 1126 b 4.
Cf. ibid, H 2, 1237 b 12.
Cf. Rhet., Г 12, 1417 b 24.
Cf. Gener. Of animals, E 2, 781 b 2.
Cf. Polit., A 11, 1295 a 34; Phet. B 23, 1398 b 19.
tonger perspective, under test conditions a judgment represents a distinction between the just and the unjust25.
It is only after this step that justice is established26. Prudence is called for the judge or judges in order not to be misled by inexactitudes and by consciously untrue testimonies27, let alone constantly necessary populist harangues28. Criteria are, therefore constantly ne-cessary, so that the judges shall not be influenced by rhetoric tending to act upon their affectivity29 and to incite them to erroneous judgments able to be naive, if not childish30.
I have sufficiently insisted on the term crisis as designating a mental process, in order to clarify that such a process constitutes an act of controlled choice31.
The prudence of the city's administrators, together with kairicity intentionally experienced by them, is the manifestation of a mediety expressed by the temporal adverbs not yet and nevermore. Imprudence, on the other hand, qualifies decisions taken by the authorities too early or too late or even inconsiderately, and entailing for the city calamities unforeseen avoided by spasmodic measures that, in the long run, prove useless. The question then arises: how are these people to be punished, since the legislation they have themselves instituted sanctifies their misdeeds32? The responsibility will be shifted downwards, to the general from the particular or vice versa33, according to the interest not of the city34, but of the cul-
25 Cf. Nicom. Eth., E 6, 1134 a 31; Rhet., B 4, 1377 b 21.
26 Cf. Polit., B 8, 1268 b 5; Д 16, 1300 b 34; E 6, 1306 a 37.
27 Ibid, B 5, 1263 b 21.
28 Ibid, E 6, 1305 b 35.
29 Cf. Rhet., B 1, 1378 a 21.
30 Cf. Polit., B 9, 1271 a 10.
31
Ibid, Z 7, 1321 a 30.
Cf. Econ., B 4, 1348 b 13: pr|KeTL eLvaL nepi twv npoTepwv еукЛпцаш.
33 Cf. Polit., Г 15, 1286, a 27.
34 Ibid, H 8, 1328 b 19: KpLoie nepi. twv au^epbviwv.
prits themselves35. Even the ephores may be classified into the category of culprits, in spite of the fact that they are supposed to oversee prominent cases and decide as Kupioi peyaAwv Kpioewv36.
At this point I have to stress the importance Aristotle gives to the notion of autarky. For him an аитаркп^ is one who does not need any outside assistance or voluntarily have recourse to it, if able to survive without too much joint action. Such an attitude presupposes the possibility of drawing on excessive resources, but also the exhaustion of any available, income. In other words, the аитаркп^, the "self-sufficient" one is he who cares for mediety; that is, the right middle, avoiding either the too much or its excessive opposite37. Autarcy is a value to cultivate38; a value of the same importance as that of the perfect good which is self-sufficient39. In the animal kingdom we find species which revel in autarky40.
At a human level the issue becomes more complicated. The slave, for instance, deprived of freedom and depending on his master, is also deprived of autarcy41. Aristotle blames Plato for not having sufficiently insisted on this42. He even adds that a city deprived of autarcy also risks falling into dependence. As regards cities, the underlying postulate here is mediety. By analogy, even kings cannot reign if deprived of autarcy43. The same applies
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Ibid, Г 9, 1280 a 11: nepi auTwv.
Ibid., B 9, 1270 b 28 and 29.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., A 5, 1097 b 14: to auTapKee; Polit., H 5, 1326 b 30; Rhet., A 7, 1364 a 8.
Cf. Polit., B 2, 1261 b 14: aLpeTWTaTov to
auTapKsorepov.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., a 5, 1097 b 8; Rhet., A 6, 1362 a 27.
Cf. Gener. Animal. Д 8, 776 b 8: ^фа sv eauTrje sxovTa Tgv Trie тpoфnc auTapKeLav; ibid, A 1, 732 a 17: та TLpLWTepa ^фа ա՛լ auTapKsorepa Tgv фиош sorLv.
Cf. Polit., D 4, 1291 a 10 and 14: to 6ouAov ouk auTapKee.
Cf. Plato, Republic II, 369 b-e.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., 0 12, 1160 b 4.
to anyone who does not live with dignity44. Like the Good itself, autarcy contributes to the happiness resulting from a contemplative life45. Man needs an autarcy of life46 which is for the virtuous citizen an aim in itself and indeed the best one47. The autarcy of possessing48 is therefore a substitute for natural autarcy49. In any case, human life remains the best and the most perfect one, provided it is crowned by autarcy50. For this reason, in any choice or selection, preference goes to whoever displays the greatest autarcy51.
As for the wise man, the latter meets his needs to the highest degree, precisely thanks to his wisdom, which allows him to revel his happiness and beatitude52. An ascending hierarchy of human autarcies is to be noticed here A single person may be self-sufficient, but his family has to be more so, and still more the curry53. The underlying postulate of mediety, is once more again applied here. In order to remain self-sufficient and prosperous, the city should not see its population at once grow excessively, due to a rush of rural populations towards urban centers or to a flood of metrics, but should develop gradually and regularly, so that it does not exceed at any time a certain limit clearly and prudently defined in advance. The city's institution has to provide the eu Znv "the well-being" of the citizens54 and consequently to be itself strong55 from
44
45
46
47
48
49
Cf. Polit., A 8, 1256 b 4: eAAeLnwv npoq то аихаркпс eLvaL.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., A 5, 1097 b 7: бешрптгкос pLoq.
Cf. Rhet., A 5, 1360 b 15; Polit., Г 1, 1379 b 21: auTapKELav pLou.
Ibid, A 2, 1252 a 1: TsXoq Kai. PsXtlotov.
Ibid, A 8, 1256 b 32: auTapKELa kthoewc.
Ibid, A 9, 1257 a 30: avanAfipwoLi; тпс Kara фиам auTapKeLaq.
50
51
52
Ibid, Г 9, 1280 b 34; 1281 a 1.
Ibid, B 2, 1261 b 14: то snapKsoraTov.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., H 12, 1244 d 3-6; 19, 1969 b 3-5; K 7;
1573 b 1.
53 Cf. Polit., Д 2, 1253 a 23; B 2, 1261 b 11.
54 Ibid, B 2, 1261 a 25; Г 6, 1278 b 16; 9, 1280 a 31 and b 30.
the virtue of the inhabitants56. In case of default, it will lose of its autarcy. The city of Athens developed thanks to its miniature colonial and imperialist "alliances", through which it appropriated the resources of its "allies". Alexander the Great, Aristotle's pupil, on the other hand, creatively propagated Hellenism and its culture, while destroying Greece itself, in the view of the German historian Droysen57. Though exaggerated, this indigent contains a nucleus of truth.
If citizen virtue has as its result the well-being of the city, citizen corruptibility, open or hidden, contributes to its weakness. Aristotle seems to define corruption as entailing death58 and as a calami-ty59 nurtured by cupidity, generally at the expense of the community60 and mediated by bribery61 or merely by accepting a tip, which is still a kind of injustice towards the city. The most numerous and the most disposed to succumb to such a temptation are those who occupy, even temporarily, a public position; for example, decision, makers62 or those whose opinion is taken seriously, such as doctors63 or other specialists64. Particularly, vulnerable to bribery are the people in long-term positions65. Cupidity is accompanied by avidity. "The appetite of pleasure is greedy for it"66, declares the founder of the Lyceum, who condemns avidity of any kind,
55
56
57
58
59
60
Ibid, H 1, 1323 b 34.
Ibid, H 1, 1323 b 34.
Cf. H. G. Dreusen, Alekander der GroRe, 1833.
Cf. Probl. 10, 47, and 865 b 8: то 6i^9apTLKpv... 9avaтnфճpov.
Cf. Metaph, 0 9, 1051 a 21.
Cf. Polit., Д 12, 1297 a 11; E 3, 1302 b 9; Nicom. Eth., I
61
62
63
64
65
66
6, 1167 b 11.
Ibid, 0 16, 1163 b 11; fr. 374, 1540 b 2.
Cf. Rhet., A 12, 1372 a 34.
Cf. Polit., Г 16, 1287 a 30: 6i^9eLpei.v Touq laTpouq 6ւձ Ksp6oq.
Cf. Polit., Г 16, 1287 a 30: 6i^9eLpei.v Touq laTpouq 6ւձ Ksp6oq.
Ibid, E 8, 1308 b 14: oi. sv noXuxpovLou; apxalq.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., Г 15, 1119 b 20: anAnoToq ր tou n6soq ope^Lq.
such as the insatiability of human indolence67 and of desire68, the desire to experience at any cost a voluptuous life of debauch, a life qualified by imprudence and lack or moderation, typical of those who flaunt their status of wealthy parvenus or behave thus according to circumstances69, especially dignitaries in long-term positions70.
Insatiability and corruption "for profit" are excesses in the exercise of power, uPpeiq, specific outrages which would normally entail uoeiq, "chastisement", "payment". The term uoiq suggests, whether etymologically or not, the other terms, тщпра, "price", due, тщп, "price", but also "honour", and upwpta, "punishment"71. By the term тщрца Aristotle also means "profit", "increment-value", "interest"72. However the same term applies also to special contributions such as the poll tax (harag in Turkish), exacted by the Ottoman administration from non-Muslims, which in today's Greek designates a supplementary tax supposedly temporary, but, in fact, permanently incorporated into the tax system.
In the Politics, unlike those deprived of fortune73, those who are wealthy and fortunate must pay a tribute74 to the city in the form of a donation75 scaled to their taxable wealth in each case76. It is from those with most wealth - (unless they deliberately fail to declare...) that the dignitaries of the city are to be nor ably side by side with members of illustrious families and notably virtuous citi-
67 Cf. Polit., B 7, 1267 b 2.
68 Ibid, A 9, 1257 b 1: апЛпойа трр еихпр.
69 Cf. supra, n. 60.
70 Cf. supra, n. 65.
71 Cf. the latin timor, «fear».
72 Cf. Polit., E 6, 1306 b 9: to tsx0sv (тРкор).
Ibid, Г 12, 1253 a 11.
74 Ibid, Д 13, 1297 a 20: oi. фёроvтеq тщпца.
75 Ibid, Д 15, 1300 a 10.
76 Ibid, В 7, 1266 b 23; Г 5, 1278 a 23; Д 4, 1291 b 3; E 7,
1307 a 28.
zens77. Nevertheless, possible modification of the rate of taxes to pay may entail trouble and changes to a city's constitution78.
A similar danger had been foreseen by the Pythagorean thinker Damon of Oa, who predicted that moving away from traditional musical laws could entail constitutional changes. During his trial before the Athenian Areopagus in 443 B.C., he defended his views, but was sentenced to exile. His teaching was venerated by Plato79 and, to some degree, by Aristotle80.
Let us stay with Aristotelian concepts of crises of various kinds in order to study his criticism of Plato's, egalitarian conception of the tax burden on the citizens of his Republic. As we have seen, Aristotle in his Politics constrasts equality and unfair le-velling. This distinction equates to his distinetion between the two levels of juridical order: distributive law, as complemented by corrective justice. Earlier, in the Topics81, it is said of legislation, as in Metaphysics of the being82, that justice can be understood in various ways (поЛЛахйр Xeyopevov), meaning that various legislations are conceivable. Thus, legislation is envisaged in two stages: isono-my, and adaptation of general rules to particular data, so that during the application of justice by the judges no injustice shall be committed. For him, justice is not alien to values and virtues: values such as the beautiful83; and all virtues84.
Ibid, Д 15, 1300 a 10; Nicom. Eth., 0 12, 1160 a 33: ր апотщпцат^ цеуаЛ^ slaLv, (аЛЛа) ւօօւ navTep sv тф
аитф тщп цате
78 Cf. Polit., E 8, 1308 a 35.
79 Cf. H. Ryffel, МетаРоЛп поЛсте^. Der Wandel der Staatsverfassungen, Noctes Romanae (Bern), 1949/2,
pp. 23-38.
80 Cf. Polit., Д 3, 1290 a 19 ff.; 0 5, 1340 b 7 ff.
81 Cf. Topics, A 15, 1000 b 30; 0 3, 108 b 10.
82 Cf. Motaph., Г 2, 1003 а 32; K 3, 1060 b 32; K 8, 1064 b 15.
83
84
Cf. Eud. Eth., A 1, 1214 a 5: koXAlotov to SiKaioTaTov; Polit., Д 5, 1291 a 41: каЛшр ка1 SLrnLwq.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., E 15, 1138 a 5: проататгоэта ката пааар тар аретар.
It is, isonomy that prevails in general85. The whole of the Fifth Book of the Nicomachean Ethics is an analysis of justice. Its two complementary aspects, distributive and corrective justice, distinct from each other, are treated separately; and then, in relation to each other. Distributive justice is governed by the mathematical ratio 4:386 whereas the harmonic ratio 3:2 is not mentioned, being obviously incompatible with the issue examined87. Corrective justice is alternatively designated as reparative justice88. Egalitarian distribution presupposes, according, to Aristotle, the etymology of Steaiov, "law", "lawfulness", from the adverb 5txa, "separately", "split in two"89.
Justice is animated by a judge90 who, in addition, is a тщптгк, a kind of value91, distinguishing between natural and manmade law92. The main stem of justice speaks into an indefinite number of branches, to deal with which would take me beyond the scope of the present essay.
Returning now over the problem of contemporary global economic crisis, as Aristotle would, I think, have viewed it93, we observe financial colossi which, through galloping technology, execute the orders of an economic oligarchy. Hence the globalization in which most of us, having adopted the Stouc notion of cosmoponlitanianism, had warily invested our hopes, today saturates our eyes and ears while stiffing our voices. These colossi however, have feet of clay. One of them has only to collapse, and all the others tremble and threaten to collapse in turn. Such a hypertsophisticated a system could not have been foreseen by Aristotle in
85Ibid, E 2, 1129 a 34; E 6, 1131 a 13; Polit., Г 9, 1980 a
11; Г 9, 1282 b 17; Great. Eth., a, 1193 b 19: to 6i.Kai.ov
npoq TOV STSpOV sotl to LOOV.
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
Cf. Nicom. Eth., E 7, 1132 a 2 and 30.
Cf. De anima, A 3, 406 b 29.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., E 2, 1132 a 18; E 5, 1135 a 1-9.
Ibid, E 2, 1132 a 32; b 32.
Ibid.
Cf. Rhet. Alex., 5, 1427 b 6.
Cf. Nicom. Eth., 0 11, 1161 a 13: npOq tO KOLvp
oui^epov.
Ibid, E 10, 1134 b 18 ff.
dreams94 his wildest. He considers the oLKOvOpoq as the administrator of the benefits of Nature to humankind95 and promotes him to the dignity of a governor96 bound to be aya0Oq, "good" and "virtuous" as Nature herself who, on principle, eliminates, disperses and spoils nothing97. Man is not only a political98, but an economic, social99, even a combinatory100 animal. This means that he is able to organize his thought and behavior in keeping conformingly with his innate sense of the just and the unjust101. He is aware in advance since he deliberates at leisure if he is committing an in justice, and that he will be charged as responsible for his action. The problem is then to decide which authority will charge him with it in due time (allusion to the notion of kairicity).
Aristotle does not reject, the term economic. He attributes it to humans as one of the principal characteristics of their life, contemplative or active, and "one of the most precious faculties of their spirit"102 provided, of course, that they employ it wisely, honestly and, above all, prudently, therefore in time103 (still an allusion to the notion of kairicity). However, economy as an activity, is limited to the individual and the family104, though one can distinguish diverse species of economies, - the royal, satrapic, private and several others105. In the case of economic affairs of the city, a particular factor necessarily intervenes: chrematistics, the art of finance that deals with providing and managing the city's income106. Chrematistics develops methods of prac-
Cf. Polit., A 10, 1058 a 25 ff; Г 11, 1282 a 21.
’ Ibid, A 10, 1258 a 31 ff.
’ Cf. Gener. Of anim., B 6, 744 b 16.
՛ Cf. Polit., A 2, 1253 a 22.
։ Cf. Eud. Eth., H 10, 1242 a 22.
' Ibid, H 10, 1242 a 26.
0 Cf. Nicom. Eth., 0 14, 1162 a 17. n Cf. Polit., A 2, 1253 a 16.
)2 Cf. Nicom. Eth., a 1, 1094 b 3.
)3 Ibid, A 8, 1208 b 13.
4 Cf. Polit., A 3, 1253 b 8; A 12, 1259 a 37; Г 14, 1285 b 32.
105 Cf. Econ., B 1245 b 12 and 19-28.
106 Cf. Polit., An 8, 1256 a 15.
tical organization, and its107 definition and activities are given in the Politics108.
Хррца, "money", is understood in that case, as a common and stable means of exchanging goods109 or services. Money passes either from one person to another110 or from individuals to the city funds. In the second case the city's money is held sacred. This does not mean that money is never siphoned off from it for reasons of personal interest111. The city's money is regularly allocated after a budget, or exceptionally, to cover unforeseen112 expenses. Those who administer the finances are termed фгЛохрп-^атог, "money-lovers"113, with all that this term implies about manipulation. Finally, Aristotle mentions two devices that are now common practice. One is, the arbitrary increase of money in circulation. This dates from the Bretton Woods Treaty114, when the Gold standard was abandoned. We have recently been informed that the American administration will in the near future suspend printing of paper money. The other is the devaluation of money in circulation, due to its unconsidered increase and to the indirect revaluation, arbitrary too, of some other money, in this case the Chinese yuan115. The first possibility is tightly linked to its correlative, and it obviously entails the second. Aristotle already had these possibilities in mind. For him, on these issues, the prytaneis116 and the eponymous archon117 are supposed to be aware of their responsibilities and will have to decide.
Hence, the imperative questions are, how to prevent the embezzlement of public money118 or, if
7 Cf. Eudem. Eth., A 4, 1215 a 31: хрицатютка!. xsxvaL.
108 Cf. Polit., an 8, 1256 a 1; an 11, 1259 b 36.
109 Cf. Nicom Eth., Д 11, 1119 b 26: хРПЦата Лёуоцеу
oowv n а^га уощацатос цетрепш.
110
Ibid.
111 Cf. Eudem. Eth., Г 4, 1231 b 37: Lepa.
112 Ibid: ката аицРеРпкРс.
113 Cf. Polit., E 12, 1316 a 40.
114 Ibid, Г 15, 1286 P 15; Nicom. Eth., 0 14, 1163 b 8.
115 Cf. Polit., a 9, 1257 b 34.
116 Cf. Constit. Of the Athenians, 394, 1543 b 11.
117 Ibid, 381, 1511 b 20.
118 Cf. Nicom. Eth., H 13, 1153 a 18.
not prevented in time (kairicity again!), how to punish it.
How can the pullers119 or their appointed mouthpieces accumulate rights and political ad-vantages120? On this point the city's legislation admits of several corrections, in the form of complementary clauses121. The city should in such cases adopt dispositions that would exclude equity or clemency, as described in the Nicomachean Eth-ics122, since this would be tantamount to perjury on part of high dignitaries123. Corruption is frequently organized in a criminal manner, with hierarchies and networks that hide from view, where the organizing minds plan undisturbed. Aristotle could not have imagined the development of the computer, where, with a single click, an immense sum of money can be transferred to some tax haven. From now on, equity and indulgence have no more part to play in justice, which will have to become inflexible. As globalization, by means of technology, has opened the way to the escape of capital, it will itself be obliged to restore that capital, albeit by severe measures against avoiders, and their families. It will suffice for alliances of interests to be stopped.
One hears continuous moans about horizontal cuts of salaries and pensions. Here again Aristotle offers a solution that could be adopted by administrative authorities. Instead of suppressing horizontal cuts, corrective law and other measures can be called in, to lighten the burden of victims of serious injustice.
Matandis mutatis, this would also apply to those who would have to pay a contribution (еюфора) or a supplementary tax (теЛос). Aristotle envisages such payments124, but, at the same time,
9 Ibid, Г 1, 1275 a 21; b 29; Z 1, 1317 a 35; Z8, 1321 b 21.
120 Cf. Polit., Г 12, 1282 b 29: пЛеоуе^а тгс тшу поЛшкшу 6LrnLwv тоТс иперёхоиа1.у.
121 Ibid, Г 1, 1275 a 21; b 29; Z1, 1317 a 35; Z 8, 1321 b 21.
122 Ibid, E 10, 1137 a 32 ff.
123 Cf. Rhet., A 14, 1375 a 9: поЛЛа ауррпке 6й<а1.а ր иперрёРпкеу, оюу оркоис.
124 Cf. Polit., E 11, 1313 b 20.
envisages measures of relief for those who temporarily cannot meet their obligations125.
In addition to a minimal symbolic per capita, contribution of126, a farthing127 - each of Aristotle's citizens is asked to pay a sum he can afford, given his life standards (the famous indexes), individual and family needs, state of health, and so on, and to contribute objects of value128 and even, voluntarily, his whole fortune129, - at any rate, whatever he is willing to give130. Admittedly those who have neglected to pay their due will remain on tenterhooks, for their debt will always pursue them131. The same goes for those who neglect to restitute illegally exported money and exposed by informers. They will all know that they face a punishment in proportion to their misdeed132. This is what, for Aristotle, "saves the cities"133; at least, those cities whose governments are not implicated in circles' of corruption. They are mainly those whose judiciary authorities do not obstruct the processes of law by pretending a backlog of court cases and by expressing indignation for very substantial cuts in their salaries, during a period of economic crisis. They will be required to judge immediately, without any delays and without fear or favor. The status of the Aristotelian "perfect city" presupposes virtuous citizens and sanctions against corruption134 until it is wiped out completely thanks to an administration entrusted to virtuous citizens whose life is contemplative to the core.
It would be easy for me to prolong this argumentation ad infinitom. Instead, I shall end by affirming that the twenty four centuries which se-
25 Ibid, B 9, 1271, 37: pi) 5uvapevoc to rsXoc... фере^.
126 Ibid, Г 9, 1280 a 20.
127 Ibid, B 10, 1272 a 14: elaeveyKsvai. pLav pvav.
128 Cf. Eudem. Eth., H 10, 1242 b 13: е’юфёре^ apyupLov.
129 Cf. Polit., B 9, 1271 b 13: elaeveyKsvai. riiv ouaLav anaaav.
130 Ibid, E 11, 1313 b 27: oawv elanynaaL SKaaroc; H 10, 1330 a 4-7.
131 Cf. Constits des Athemiens, 401, 1540 a 12.
132 Cf. Neom. Eth., Г 11, 1117 a 14; E 8, 1131 b 21 and 23; H 5, 1163 a 1; 0 2, 1255, b 33: avrinenovOwc.
133 Cf. Polit., B 2, 1261 a 30: ow^ei. rac nbXeLq.
134 Ibid., Д 2, 1289 b 15: apLarn noXireLa.
parate us from Aristotle, despite all important historical changes that have since occurred in human society, have in no way tarnished the value of his thoughts, and that his philosophy continues to be topical; so much so, that it gives us, some useful hints about how to use of the means and measures he proposes so as to cure the ills of human societies. We hope of course, that these means and measures will transform for the best a globalization that Aristotle had not foreseen. To him we can safely trust our aspirations our aspirations for a better future for humankind.
