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Copyright © 2021 by Cherkas Global University
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Published in the USA
Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie)
Has been issued since 2005
ISSN 1994-4160
E-ISSN 2729-8132
2021. 17(4): 693-701
DOI: 10.13187/me.2021.4.693
www.ejournal53.com
A Comparative Analysis of Soviet Media Education in the Period of "Perestroika" (1984-1991) and the Modern Period
Elena Muryukina a , *, Victoria Voychenko b
a Moscow Pedagogical State University, Russian Federation b Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Abstract
A comparative analysis of media education in the USSR during perestroika and the period of modern Russian history has shown us some similarities and differences. The position of researchers on the need to develop media education in the context of the main global trends, the use of a unified conceptual framework, and to rely on the international regulatory framework remains unified. A comparative analysis has proved that a large number of media-educational technologies used today in media-education activities were developed by media-educators during the perestroika period. They are a synthesis of Russian and foreign techniques that have proven effective in achieving media-educational goals. We note that the interest of media educators in media club activities has not diminished. The set of goals and tasks implemented at the classes of the media club has not undergone major changes and is focused to a greater extent on fostering the following qualities in the participants. The difference between the periods being compared is the understanding that the subjects of media education include not only students, but also teachers of secondary and higher schools and institutions of supplementary education. The new professional standard will reflect the qualification requirements in the field of media competence.
Keywords: media education, comparative analysis, Russia, 1984-1991 years, modernity, similarities, differences.
1. Introduction
The early 1980s in the USSR were the beginning of a deep social crisis. A "psychological war" against the Soviet Union was gaining momentum in the West, and bourgeois propaganda in the mass media was intensifying. Under these conditions, the government of the country unleashes a campaign of counter-propaganda, which will be implemented in the educational system of the country from 1984. The paradox is that one of the main goals of media education, seen in Western countries as a way to protect against all kinds of propaganda influence (Bauer, 1984; MacBride, 1984), coincides with the goals of the Soviet leadership.
Among the major trends characterizing media education in the 2nd half of the 1980s we include:
- the process of "deepening" of media education research, the transition from the description and generalization of purely pedagogical experience to the identification of psychological and sociological features;
- increased interest of researchers in the problems of children's creativity associated with the media;
- media education includes elementary school children.
* Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: murjukina@ya.ru (E. Muryukina)
The investigation of transformational processes in Soviet media education of perestroika period (1984-1991 years) (Muryukina, 2019) gave grounds for supposition that the modern media educational activity has a great number of borrowings. To prove our ideas, we decided to conduct a comparative analysis of Soviet media education of the periods of perestroika and in its current state. Thus, the media educationalist O.F. Nechai (Nechai, 1990) stated that Soviet TV programs have wide opportunities of their audience's aesthetic and artistic feelings development. On these grounds she built and nearly organized a media educational model on the material of television (as means of communication), where the main goal was aesthetic upbringing with the help of television material.
Today the aspects of TV programs investigation have transformed. It is affected by a number of factors: change of the conceptual part of TV material; functions of modern television; demands and interests of the basic audience it relies on and tends to form; the TV audience (age-specific, social and so on) and others. Thus, the aspectness of television material investigation on media educational classes is changed. It concerns not only Russian reality but also the one of Western countries. In this respect it is suggested to conduct the analysis of TV programs, grounding on such concepts as "Languages; Technology; Production and dissemination processes; Interaction processes; Ideology and values; Aesthetics" (Digon, 2019: 232).
2. Materials and methods
The materials for the investigation were monographs, study guides, articles in scientific journals, conferences collections, dissertation investigations of media educationalists of the perestroika times (1984-1991 years) and of present time.
The methods of the investigation were grounded the main goal consisting in comparative analysis of Soviet media education of the period of perestroika and contemporary period conduction. Thus, as the methods different kinds of analysis were used - retrospective, comparative and others, synthesis and generalization of theoretical and empiric material.
3. Discussion
Soviet media educators (1984-1991) sought to broaden the scope of media education, drawing on Western developments, UNESCO documents defining the content and conceptual apparatus (Bauer, 1984; MacBride, 1984; Bezanger; 1982; MacBride, 1986; Media education, 1984). During this period, it is important for media educators to find new concepts that more clearly reflect the subject, purpose, and goals of their work. For example, M.M. Vrabets suggested replacing the concept of "film education" with definitions such as "screen culture education" and "film education" (Vrabets, 1985).
The main idea of the investigation is in study of theoretical bases of empirics and media educational activity of the period of "perestroika". We introduced the generalized theoretical model of school media education of the period of "perestroika" (1984-1991) in the Soviet Russia (Muryukina, Voychenko, 2020a). It was determined that as the means of the basic theories, the media educational activity relied on, the ideological, aesthetic and practical ones were used. In the majority of the media education models investigated the suggested theories were compiled. We also found the elements of critical thinking development theory, but it was mostly used for Western media texts critics, that means, it was an ideology element and it is pointless to regard it as a self consistent theory in the 2-nd part of 1980-s. The main purpose of the media educational model realized at schools was multi-faceted personality development by means of Mass Communication Tools (MCT) and Mass Media (MM). Obviously, the development of personality comprised an ideology component - through the deeper understanding of political processes; the formation inside the collective; the exposure to high aesthetic ideals and moral principles.
It goes without saying, that Soviet media education of 1980-s was realized not only at schools but also at institutes of higher education and in further education establishments. Its analysis (Muryukina, Voychenko, 2020b) revealed both similarities and differences of media educational activity school form. The goal was in duality: development of socially active personality with moral-aesthetic abilities on one hand, and the formation of professional knowledge, skills and abilities, connected with the artistic interests in the field of media on the other hand. These KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities) include the abilities to work with equipment (camera, cine-camera and so on), the skills of media texts creation (writing articles, the abilities to work with printing machines, in
photo laboratories, radio cabins and so on). Thus, we can speak about great practical "shift" of media education direction, realized in optional education and higher education institutions.
Today Russian media educators have to include together with specific tasks of media education the ones of ideological character more often. They are solved in practice with the help of technologies of critical thinking, revealing of manipulative methods (Camarero et al., 2019; Fedorov, Levitskaya, 2021; Levitskaya, Fedorov, 2021), fake news or their interpretations.
We connect this fact with the informational war directed towards Russia. M. Tselykh writes: "Since 2014 there is a steady increase in anti-Russian propaganda in the works of leading Ukrainian media experts and in textbooks on media education for schools and universities. In them different instruments and technologies of communication are used to negatively influence the perception of Russia, its politics and culture. Such manipulative tools include: 1) retention of the necessary topics, events, interpretations in the information space; 2) construction of information (assembling an event from fragments); 3) fragmentation of events; 4) paralipsis or understatement vs unwinding the topic; 5) pulling facts from the past, etc. It is also shown that Ukrainian experts, as a whole, has become more aggressive, ideologically biased and overweighted in the process of media education. Especially since 2014 clear features of antiRussian propaganda can be traced in many Ukrainian textbooks on media education. They are already based to a large extent on Western developments; there are almost no references to Russian research findings and practical experience. This is a response to the latest trends in Ukraine, which require changes in media education solely on the basis of Western experience. These new textbooks emphasize ideological confrontation and informational enmity with Russia. Particularly disturbing is the fact of massive anti-Russian agitation aimed primarily at such target groups and audiences as schoolchildren, students, young people, and school teachers. It is concluded that it is unacceptable to use media manipulative technologies to escalate hostility and hatred" (Tselykh, 2021: 571). The similar point of view is reflected in A.V. Fedorov's works (Fedorov, 2019).
4. Results
We'll introduce the main results of the comparative analysis of Soviet media education of "perestroika" period (1984-1991 years) and the one of the contemporary time.
1. The similarity of "perestroika" period and contemporary media education is the understanding of the necessity of world trends study and integration in media education. They should spread both into the synergy of practical workings according to modern trends of education and personality development, and into the terminological base. I.V. Weisfeld (Weisfeld, 1988) in 1988 pointed at the underrun of theoretical and methodological grounds of Soviet media education from the "challenges" of time, the tendencies of world experience. The basic aspects of media education, demanding transformation, included:
- the problem of screen on media educational classes is important to be dealt in the context of other sciences. It is grounded by the fact of including journalists, critics and others to the problem of cinema pedagogics;
- film education shouldn't remain the science about cinema art, methodological grounds of integration with literary studies, theatre studies, aesthetics, sociology are needed;
- accentuation of attention on the problem of investigation boundaries "blurring".
Modern investigations from different fields of knowledge also turn to the analysis of existing and appearing notions. Thus, in contemporary media education one of the key notions is the notion "media text". It appeared in the USSR of the period of "perestroika" (1984-1991 years) simultaneously with the development of different kinds of media. Media text comprised different means of information transference - text, picture, sound, graphics, and animation. The necessity to evaluate, understand or create a media text induces to study its contents, structure, language, functioning peculiarities.
The particular form of media text is the internet-text as the hybrid, convergent form, created with the help of integrated technologies on the basis of mass messages. The distinguishing features of such texts are connected with the peculiarities of Internet-communication, characterized by "hypertextuality, interactivity, lack of linearity, usage of narrative strategies, acceleration of time and compression of space, the absence of physical distance barriers, convergence" (Pilgun, 2015: 29). Thus, media educational activity is based on media texts study and analysis.
2. An important distinguishing feature of contemporary media education and the one of the period of "perestroika" (1984-1991 years) is the widening of understanding of necessity not only of
scholars' media literacy formation, but also an educator's media-informational competence level development.
As a result of media education we get media-informational competence, expressed in a number of levels. Our working out of qualification demands (within the professional standard) to the educators on the programs of primary and secondary general education (the characteristics of education - Bachelor's program, Master's program, specialist's program) in the field of media-informational competence give grounds to speak about the necessity of possessing the following complex of skills and abilities:
To know:
- the main notions and principles, the technology of information search and processing according to the means of communication specificity;
- the criteria of methods and technologies selection, directed on the formation of information search and processing abilities as a component of the students' media-informational competence;
- the specificity of this or that media educational methodology and technology usage;
- the language of media, the main methods of media audience's consciousness manipulation;
- the history and the main ideas of aesthetic, ethic, culturological theories of media education;
- various criteria of media texts selection according to their upbringing potential;
- different forms, methods, methodologies, technologies of media education effective for the students;
- media education resources, effective for students' cognitive interest, creative thinking, career-guidance development.
To master media-informational competences, allowing:
- to distinguish specific peculiarities of the means of communication, genre, specific characteristics of a media text on grounds of different criteria;
- to apply principles, diferent technologies of information search, processing and analysis according to the means of communication specificity;
- to conduct a selection of media educational technologies in accordance with educational tasks, students' age peculiarities;
- to decode the received information and to encode the media texts of one's own on the basis of legal rules and ethic norms;
- to make the plan of tasks on MIC, fitting it into the plan of upbringing work of the educational institution;
- to conduct a large-scale analysis of media texts in accordance with the criteria of their educational potential;
- to integrate media education (methods, methodologies, technologies) into students' educational, extra-curricular and leisure activities;
- to master the competences on writing and realization of the program of media-informational literacy for scholars, grounding on age peculiarities and personality-centered principle of education;
- to make a qualified selection of forms, methods, technologies according to the main types of scholars' activities;
- to realize professional tasks basing upon the media education resources for different kinds of scholars' activities.
Pedagogical activity on the realization of primary and secondary general education programs involves the following knowledge and abilities:
Knowledge:
- Of basic resources and informational bases on media education for integration them into educational programs;
- Of professional activity, integrating media education, peculiarities self-analysis;
- Of students' feedback methods;
- Of the main scientific works on the problem of media-informational literacy both in Russia and abroad;
- Of the basic UNESCO documents, regulating the trends of media-informational competence development in the world.
Abilities:
- To use informational bases on media education for integration them into the primary and secondary general education programs;
- To conduct one's own professional activity, integrating media education, self-analysis, and students' feedback;
- To use systematically media education literacy elements in educational programs realization;
- To organize and plan one's scientific activity on the problem of media-informational competence;
- To find in different search systems media educational information bases for their integration into the subject education;
- To make a qualified choice of the materials on media-informational literacy in accordance with goal-setting, age peculiarities;
- To master the technology of professional activity self-analysis, integrating media education; self-reflection and students' feedback achieving methodologies;
- To perform scientific activity with students on the problem of media-informational literacy.
The main types of activity for the primary and secondary general education programs
realization include:
- The work with resources and informational databases on media education for their integration into educational programs;
- Systematic use of media-informational literacy elements in education programs realization;
- The participation in scientific activity on the problem of media-information literacy (conferences, publications in scientific issues, profile contests, grants, project activity).
3. The great number of media educational technologies were worked out in our country in the second part of 1980-s, today they haven't lost their applicability. They are represented both by Soviet working outs, and the adopted versions of Western technologies which became available for investigation and integration during the period of "perestroika" in the USSR. These technologies will be effective while used in educational institutions (of secondary and higher education), and also in supplementary education institutions.
Let's have a look at some of them:
Media education technology of "Media texts reviewing"
For media texts genre specificity recognition, the media educational technology, media texts reviewing, can be suggested, which is aimed at specific genre/media text kind typical peculiarities revealing. Among such peculiarities it is necessary to accentuate attention on a particular genre/kind typical characteristics, being displayed in composition building, the means of expression and so on.
Media education technology on the problem of "the character reference under the given conditions"
Thus, the completion of the task is suggested - to describe / illustrate the characteristics (behavior, motives, relations) of one and the same character, finding himself in media texts of different genres. The participants in the process of discussion define probable topics of communication and the peculiarities of the characters', turning out in situations of different genres, relations.
It is important to emphasize to the participants the importance of non-verbal means of communication usage (mimics, gestures and so on), which let us fulfil the dialogues, give the characters' greater emphasis, expression to their behavior. So, this task completion with the usage of the participants' mimics, gestures promotes the knowledge on media language development.
Media education technologies on the basis of game forms of work
Game forms of classes, developing attention on the basis of media materials, have a great number of varieties. Let's have a look at some of them.
- During the preparation for the audience's perception of a media text, we accentuate their attention on sounds, voices, subjects, characters' emotional state; changes of sounds occurring during the scenes changes. We can use the following questions: what kind of sounds they heard, what changes occurred in the end of the film and so on.
- One more game-improvisation - "Circle story-telling". Its conduction suggests that every participant should continue the begun story on some of the suggested topics connected with the media text.
- The task, based on improvisation is a kind of a "trying on" of some media character. The participant should express "the seen" or "the heard" event, happening in the media text. It is also possible to widen the variety of the task completion and to suggest the audience to display the script or theatre sketch based on the media text events. They should reflect the character's peculiarities, demonstrate how this or that state / the character's action can be conveyed with the help of camera angle, choosing of shot, details, decorations, sound decision (prominence and timbre, music theme).
Technology "media text semiotic rank analysis"
The main component of media competence is the ability to analyze media texts, the author's idea revealing through decoding of the complex of codes, signs and symbols. Let's have a look at some of them:
- To suggest the audience to watch some video content without sound track for their attention concentration on characters' mimics, gestures, light, kinds of shooting and so on. During the analysis it's necessary to compare different shots where one and the same scene is displayed with the help of different angles, light decisions of the shot and so on. The discussion, organized in the classroom can reveal the role of the system of codes and symbols in media texts usage, to distinguish their effect on the author's idea perception and understanding.
- The task implies the particular shots analysis. For this reason, the participants are divided into mini groups. They are demonstrated one shot from media text and suggested to answer the following questions:
What plot lines can be distinguished in this shot?
In what details, symbols are the characters' images exposed?
Media education technology of "shot freezing"
The task "shot freezing" is integrated into the Russian educational system from the British experience. During the media text demonstration in the class the image stop occurs. The participants have to analyze its composition, light decision, the colours, angles used in the shot and so on. The completion of the task is aimed at the conclusion formation that each detail in the shot is used for purpose.
Media education technology "media perception development"
As the task the audience can be suggested to conduct a comparative analysis of media texts of different times - film remakes, TV-series, TV-programs of different periods and others can be included. The participants have to note out significant changes, reflected in openings, background music, characters' images and so on. The variation on the task completion can be a collective discussion of the media text grounded on the events of their personal life.
4. The comparative analysis of Soviet media education of "perestroika" and modern periods proves that media clubs' classes organization and conduction haven't lost significance. On the contrary, the aims put by the RF Government for the education system, are at children and youth's upbringing tasks decision. The most important part is played here by media clubs. It's evident, that for the personality formation the support on pragmatist approach is needed, so, media club classes will be effective enough. This is proved by our long-term experience of such regional institute media club for future educationalists guidance (Muryukina, 2014).
The complex of tasks to realize on media clubs' classes, includes the development of moral qualities, patriotic feelings, the maim principles of media laws and language knowledge; media-informational competence, aesthetic perception and taste cultivation; the ability to qualified media texts analysis.
The particular goals set to the media club haven't greatly transformed since the period of "perestroika" and consist in:
- focused upbringing of emotionality and compassion;
- stability of moral-patriotic principles;
- upbringing of moral-aesthetic perception
- involvement into moral-aesthetic process.
The media club classes are based on the technology of media text discussion, which includes:
1) The presenter's opening speech. It is aimed at giving short information about the film's creators, reminding their previous works so that the audience could move beyond the particular work product and turn to the other works of these authors, if it is needed. The stage of the film viewing preparation can include conversation; film information analysis; film director's, cameraman's creative biographies acquaintance.
2) Collective viewing of the film (communicative stage);
3) The viewed film discussion, making conclusions of the task.
The technology of film discussion can include the following components: the acquaintance with critics' opinions; the film's essence determination.
A film discussion includes a number of consistent stages:
- the choice of episodes, brightly demonstrating the peculiarities of the whole film consistency building;
- the analysis of these episodes (the intention to apprehend the author's message logics -in complex, interconnected development of conflict, characters, ideas, audo-visual aids and so on)
- the author's conception revealing and its evaluation by the audience.
The discussion should be finished by the problem-checking question, determining the degree of the audience's skills of film analysis received. To such questions we can include the following ones: "Which films can the viewed film be compared? Draw your arguments. What is common in these films and what is the difference?".
We worked out a number of recommendations on the basis of the comparative analysis of Soviet media education of the period of "perestroika" (1984 - 1994 years) and modern period conducted on the usage of media education technologies in educational environment of Russia:
- The main methodic advice is not to use prohibitions, but to introduce one's own ideal and to control with future analysis on what reasons and aspects it is neglected or accepted in full measure in the process of media education classes.
- It is useful not to lose continuum of the modern education, including extra-curricular work organization, with the experience of the Soviet period. The answers to many questions of theoretical organization of classes and their practical realization conditions can be found in works of O.A. Baranov (Baranov..., 2005), I.V. Weisfeld (Weisfeld, 1988), S.N. Penzin (Penzin, 1987), G.A. Polichko (Polichko, 1990), Y.N. Usov (Usov, Smelkova, Levin, 1986), A.V. Fedorov (Fedorov, 2019) and others.
- The special attention should be given to media texts selection. It is important to observe codependency between a media club participants' age peculiarities, the complex of needs, determining the interests in the sphere of media and the selection of media texts, used during the media club classes. In case of this condition completion it may be stated that the goals put in front of the media club, aimed at the participants' aesthetic, moral-ethic development, can be solved. So, media texts should include particular moral problems, being overcome by their characters.
- During a media club classes organization, the personality component is of great significance - media educator's personality, his or her concern, creative approach. Thus, I.V. Weisfeld and G.A. Polichko stated, that the intense development of media education in the USSR and in Russia was promoted by media educationalists' personal concern not only in the result but also in the process of media educational activity. In the Soviet Union author pedagogics was developing and we consider that the constellation of outstanding educators should include O.A. Baranov (Baranov, Penzin, 2005), I.N. Graschenkova (Graschenkova, 1986), E.N. Goryukhina (Goryukhina, 1980), I.V. Weisfeld (Weisfeld, 1988), I.S. Levshina (Levshina, 1989), O.F. Nechai (Nechai, 1990), S.N. Penzin (Penzin, 1984), G.A. Polichko (Polichko, 1990), Y.N. Usov (Usov, 1986), A.V. Fedorov (Fedorov, 2019), A.V. Sharikov (Sharikov, 1991) and others. To the main characteristic features of their film pedagogical work we refer enthusiasm, the heuristic character of the conducted activity; active searching of the revealing of methods able to films potential opening, their aesthetic and moral qualities, inner world, patriotic feelings, these films cultivated.
- To give a qualified appreciation of the media club classes effectiveness, the usage of these or those media technologies, it is important to conduct permanent feedback with its participants.
- During the media club thematic plan formulation, films and media texts usage determination, it is important to ground on the region's cultural-educational environment peculiarities.
5. Conclusion
In the article we demonstrated the results of the comparative analysis of media education in the USSR of the period of "perestroika" (1984 - 1991 years) and the period of the modern, contemporary Russian history. As similarity we pointed out the positions of the "perestroika" and modern periods investigators' position of the necessity of media education in the context of main
world trends development, grounding on the international normative framework, conceptual construct and others.
The comparative analysis proved that the great number of media education technologies, applied nowadays in media educational practice, were worked out by media educators in the period of "perestroika". They represent the synthesis of domestic and foreign methods, proved their effectiveness for media education goals achievement.
We state that media educators' interest to media clubs' activity is not diminishing. The complex of aims and goals, realized during the media clubs' classes hasn't greatly changed and is aimed at the participants' following qualities development: emotionality and sympathy; moral determination; patriotic feeling; moral-aesthetic perception development and so on.
The difference of the periods compared (1984-1991 years - present time) is the understanding that the subjects of media education are not only students, but also the educators of secondary and higher education institutions and further education establishments. The new professional standard will include qualification requirements in the fields of media-informational competence. Their main features are worked out in accordance with the level of education and the main labour functions.
6. Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the grant of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR, project No. 19-013-00597) at the Moscow Pedagogical State University. Project theme: "Transformation processes in the domestic media education of the period of "perestroika". Head of the project is E.V. Muryukina.
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