CC BY
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13. Rocznik statystyczny handlu zagranicznego 2007. [Електронний ресурс]. - Доступний з http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/index_PLK_HTML.htm.
14. Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland. [Електронний ресурс]. - Доступний з http:// www.destatic.de.
15. Vincentz V. Die neuen Nachbarn und die Europäische Union - Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Integration am Beispiel Ukraine und Belarus / V. Vincentz, H. Clement // Osteropa-Institut Working Paper. - № 256. - 2005. - 107 s.
Садула Л.М. Основные торговые партнеры Украины в Европейском
Союзе
Речь идет о внешнеторговых отношениях Украины с основными партнерами странами-членами ЕС: ФРГ, Польшей, Италией, Венгрией, Великой Британией и Францией. Проанализированы динамика развития, географическая и товарная структура внешней торговли Украины с выше отмеченными странами.
Ключевые слова: внешняя торговля, Украина, ЕС, географическая структура, товарная структура.
Sadula L.M. Main trade partners of Ukraine from European Union
The foreign trade relationships between Ukraine and main partners countries EU-members: Federal Republic of Germany, Poland, Italy, Hungary, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Nothern Ireland and France are considered in the paper. The dynamics of development, geographic and goods structure of Ukaine's foreign trade with above mentioned countries is analysed.
Keywords: foreign trade, Ukraine, EU, geographic structure, goods structure.
УДК330.15; 330.15.011; 330.366 Наук. ствроб. Ева Ганович, д-р фтос. наук -
1нститут noRimoROztt, м. Ополе
ЗАС1Б ДОПОМОГИ СВРОСОЮЗУ ДЛЯ М1СЦЕВОГО
САМОВРЯДУВАННЯ
Територiальне самоврядування, що функщонуе в демократичнш кршш, е од-шею з основних щей сучасносп. Мюцеве самоврядування, як незалежна адмшютра-тивна одиниця, задовольняе потреби сво'х мешканщв на основi таких джерел фшан-сування, як: власш кошти; кошти, надаш державою; кошти, передбачеш програмами Свропейського союзу. Аналiз тако! ситуаци, на прикладi Польщ^ викладено у цш робота
Self-governments of communes (gmina), despite the fact that they function as the smallest territorial units in the state, play a very important role: the commune - because of its very essence itself intertwined with satisfying needs of its inhabitants - takes independent decisions on shortages and deficiencies of its own functioning. The concept of local development did not appear in the economic politics until in the 1980 s. The year 1989 saw both a political, social and economic breakthroughs, but not only. In Poland, like in other countries of Central-Eastern Europe, there occurred a revival of local governments, and together with them there appeared problems connected with the infrastructure and realization of a whole series of tasks which were decisive - and still are - as far as the level of affluence of the commune is concerned, and - what follows from it - about the affluence of its inhabitants. The aim behind the forming of communes was and still is to create proper conditions for their development, which makes it possible to meet the needs of all members of the local community. One of the vital principles of subsidizing the latter is the right to
possess one's own financial sources sufficient to perform the public tasks which they are obliged to execute, as well as the right to develop. Self-dependence allows local authorities to shape and realize their own socioeconomic policies within the framework of the law in force. Development in the territorial aspect needs to be lasting and sustainable: what counts is improvement in the quality of life of local communities supported with decisions of an economic character, which would be socially accepted and agreeable with natural environment. Key strategic decisions are made by collective organs established through democratic election in order to represent interests of inhabitants of a region, a sub-region or a micro-region. Apart from strategic (substantial) decisions resulting from assessments and socioeconomic analyses, political reasons also play a significant role, which necessitates carrying out public consultations. Strategy of development is a fundamental element of the process of local programming and planning, which is a condition of functioning and development of the region. It is meant to cause activities of independent subjects and environments to be coordinated through formulating long-term targets, their modification in dependence on changes going on in the surrounding area, determination of resources and means of realization of the aims, as well as delineating the road of conduct to secure optimal conditions of development1.
The assistance means which are the subject of the present discussion, are designed to finance initiatives that are proposed by communes' self-governments, for the realization of which the latter do not have financial means at their disposal. The commune is equipped with legal personality and because of this it can decide about itself. It also runs its own policy (obviously within the frameworks of the legislative system of the state) which is regulated by the Constitution and respective acts. The assistance means for communes and their distribution are very closely tied to the regional policy. A region becomes marked out on the basis of historical, geographical, cultural and language-related conditionings, as well as similarities of the economic structure. The Assembly of European Regions distinguishes a region as "a political-territorial-administrative unit situating directly after the state authority, equipped in elected and appointed political representation, secured by the existence of a regional council made up of lower territorial units that are subordinated to it" .
In Poland, the commune - as the only rung of the local self-government -has at its disposal its own source of income in the form of taxes and fees. Self-governments enjoy full freedom in deciding about spending means they obtain from the income tax from physical persons and that from legal subjects. This is money which should correspond to the amount paid by the inhabitants of the given self-territorial government unit3.
1 W. Zasadzki, "Wybrane problemy lokalnej i regionalnej polityki gospodarczej" ("Selected problems of local and regional economic politics"). In: J. Kaja and K. Piech (eds), Rozwoj orazpolityka regionalna i lokalna w Polsce (The Development and Local and Regional Politics in Poland), Warszawa 2005, pp. 23-27.
2 A. Trzcielinska-Polus and B. Curylo, "Polityka regionalna jako determinanta polityki lokalnej" ("Regional Policy as a determiner of local Policy"). In: E. Ganowicz and L. Rubisz (eds), Polityka lokalna. Wiasciwosci, determinanty, podmioty (Local Politics. Properties, Determiners, Subjects), p. 201.
3 E. Pankau, "Polityka regionalna jako instrument podwyzszania konkurencyjnosci polskich regionow" ("The regional policy as an instrument of raising competitiveness of Polish regions"). In: J. Kaja and K. Piech (eds), Problemy zwiqzane z finansowaniem samorzqdow w Polsce (Problems Connected with Subsidizing Local Self-Governments in Poland), Warszawa 2005, pp. 120-121.
The regional politics, also referred to as structural policy or policy of economic and social cohesion of the European Union, is a long-term activity of the public authorities of different levels oriented towards stimulating economic and social development of regions subsidized mainly from the EU's budget, but also with money of the member countries, units of territorial self-government and private subjects1. The aim of the regional policy is development of regions, removal of differences between regions of individual member-states, leveling standards of life quality, that is "contribution to economic growth, development of civilization and culture in the given area, and in consequence - to possibly fullest satisfying of the inhabitants' needs, raising the level of their affluence, as well as improvement of conditions and quality of living"2. It is worth noting here that the aims of the regional policy are convergent - if not identical - with those behind the functioning of the commune as the basic territorial unit of the state.
Both rungs - so different in the way of functioning, as well as in the institutional foundation of their activity - put up the good of their communities as their superior goal. Attention should be drawn here to the fact that the European Union - as a structure integrating subjects of varied conditionings, beginning with historical, political, socioeconomic, ending with geographical ones - has based the realization of its regional policy on its own definition of the region resulting from statistical and financial needs.
A consequence of the fact that the EU does not possess a uniform administrative or territorial division is that it does not have, either, common instructions or norms that would concern equipping of regions in rights and finances being the same for all the member-states. Instead, there has been created a nomenclature of territorial units for statistical reasons - the so-called NUTS (Nomenclature of Units for Territorial Statistics) - which divides each member-state into regional and local levels. The regional politics is based on concepts of development which are 'made territorial'. The notion of 'territory' is understood not in the context of physical space, but as an area inhabited by community and institutions and subjects closely connected with one another and which function there .
The point about regional politics is that it is means to narrow the developmental disproportions such as: low incomes, unemployment rate, condition of natural environment, equipping with facilities of the infrastructure, access to the capital, education and competences, level of services for enterprises between individual areas of the EU. Supporting competitiveness and independent development of regions leads to an economic growth of the whole country.
Another vital target of regional politics is stimulation of sectorial and structural adjustment of regions since technological progress favors rapid changes in different sectors of industry, which can lead to a decline of the whole region. The main object of influence exerted by regional politics are local authorities since the
1 T.G. Grosse, "Wprowadzenie" ("Introduction"). In: T.G. Grosse (ed.), Polska wobec nowejpolityki spojnosci Unii Europejskiej (Poland Towards the New Policy of Cohesion of the EU), Warszawa 2004, pp. 11-12.
2 A. Trzcielinska-Polus and B. Curylo, op. cit., p. 202.
3 I. Pietrzyk, Polityka regionalna Unii Europejskiej i regiony w panstwach cztonkowskich (The Regional Policy of the EU and Regions in the Member-States), PWN Warszawa 2001, pp. 26-27.
above-mentioned elements are a kind of surrounding, an environment in which the authorities act. Despite that, the state still plays an important role - a coordinating function. It also forms certain elements of the environment in which the enterprises are active, e.g. the infrastructure, public assistance or services. Regional politics of the state is written in decentralization, with which the need for compensatory transfers into regions of low economic potential is related. The effect of such a policy yields positive results only in a longer perspective. It is cooperation of all subjects, both central and regional, that matters for regional policy. Regions make a plane of their meeting point; hence, the key role attributed to them as regards the sphere of regional development. Relations between small and medium-sized enterprises are of paramount importance for regional development. Highly developed countries apply various forms of support for these enterprises both from the level of central and territorial authorities1.
Proper understanding of the idea of competitiveness of regions is vital to regional development: competition is treated as an effective method of solving many problems, including raising the effectiveness of actions. Moreover, it is one of the ways of leveling of regional disproportions, leveling of chances of development . It is one of three basic goals of regional politics, along with building absorption potential, EU-granted means and marginalization of poorly-developed regions3.
The EU functions on the ground of the assumption that it realizes a policy which will secure sustainable economic growth, level of living, level of unemployment, as well as cooperation between the states to each of its member-states. The EU has created, on the basis of the axiology of a democratic state, a system, in the assumptions of which subjects are equal, independent, and all forms of discrimination and manifestations of breaking human rights are suppressed. In order to achieve the above-mentioned targets there are tools implemented, thanks to which it becomes possible to unify the EU's policies, even though through forming a uniform market and an economic-monetary union. It should be stressed that all the EU's actions are based on the grounds of treaties in force as they determine the foundations of its activity.
Changes in the goals or organizational principles behind the EU's regional politics most often occur in the case of enlarging the commonwealth with new states in order to make it easy for them to make a better adjustment to the community and to compensate for the losses at the moment of their joining the common market and also those resulting from preparation of another budget cycle. One of the important changes in the regional politics to date has been concentration of expenses in economically poorest regions with the aim to level regional differences -hence, the reference to this policy also as the cohesive one4.
1 Ibidem, pp. 19-24; 41-42.
2 U. Markowska-Przybyla, "Polska polityka regionalna" ("The Polish regional policy"). In: J. Kaja and K. Piech (eds), Rozwoj oraz polityka regionalna i lokalna w Polsce (The Development and Local and Regional Politics in Poland), Warszawa 2005, pp. 93-94.
3 D. Wyszkowska, "Polityka regionalna jako instrument podwyzszania konkurencyjnosci polskich regionow" ("Regional policy as an instrument of raising the competitiveness of Polish regions"). In: J. Kaja and K. Piech (eds), Rozwoj oraz polityka regionalna i lokalna w Polsce (The Development and Local and Regional Politics in Poland), Warszawa 2005, p. 104.
4 T.G. Grosse, "Wprowadzenie", op. cit., pp. 12, 16.
One of the fundamental principles to facilitate putting the idea into life is that of subsidiarity, which (or rather the definition of which to be precise) has had a number of interpretations. It was adjusted to both the functioning of territorial self-government and the activity of the European Union.
In both of these cases this seems to be justified, though: subsidiarity means that the authority ought to perform an auxiliary function, according to which each rung of the authority should realize only these tasks that can not be effectively carried out by the lower level or by its own units which deal within society themselves. The name of the principle derives from the Latin word subsydium meaning 'assistance, support, reserve forces'1. Understood as a principle behind the organization of the state, it has a special significance both negative - as it means that no authority should disturb individuals or social groups in undertaking their own tasks, and positive - since the aim of each authority is to induce and keep up efforts on the part of subjects that are self-sufficient. Hence, it follows from the above that sociopolitical activity should concentrate on the smallest and the lowest levels in the social hierarchy . Within the framework provided by the EU this principle means transferring those tasks whose solving from the level of the higher rung means greater effectiveness than undertaking tasks on the level of individual member-states.
All the above-mentioned issues remain within the subject matter relating to assistance means - the subject of the present paper. European Union's means granted within assistance programs offered (and they still do) a challenge to the local community and authorities. These programs are initiated with the aim to strengthen cooperation within different domains and - which is the most important - to finance initiatives which target bettering the life quality of local communities through development and modernization of communes. The paper presents statistical and financial data connected with assistance means in the case of Poland. It presents programs within the pre-accession fund, as well as those within structural funds, which are being implemented by communes in Poland at the moment.
Before entering the European Union, Poland had made use of instruments of pre-accession support such as PHARE, SAPARD and ISPA, and also certain Commonwealth Programs like: 5 Framework Program, Leanardo da Vinci, eContent, Culture. For example, ISPA (Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession) supports institutions dealing within the sphere of protection of environment and transport; PHARE (Poland and Hungary Assistance for Restructuring their Economies) - the most extensive program of the pre-accession funds which concerned investments connected with prospective membership in the EU and with improvement of the infrastructure of roads, bridges or trans-border cooperation. Poland was the biggest beneficiary of the program, receiving a total of EUR 3.9 billion between 1990 and 2003; SAPARD (Special Accession Program for Agriculture and Rural Development) - in turn - is connected with support for agriculture and modernization of rural areas. Within the frameworks of it, investments in agriculture and food processing industry are financed.
1 www.wikipedia.org.pl
2 E. Pankau, op. cit., pp. 117-118.
One of the main beneficiaries of the assistance means in Poland are territorial self-governments which are relatively successful in coping with servicing the EU projects. The assistance means flow into the state's budget in the form of purposeful subsidies which serve the purpose of realizing determined targets. Subsidies make for about 10 % of the commune's income, 45 % of that of the county (po-viat) and 50 % of that of the province (voivodeship)1.
Poland, on having obtained the right of accession to the European Union (after 1 May, 2004), joined in the realization of the commonwealth policy, particularly that of cohesion, which aims at promotion of a harmonious development of the whole EU territory through actions leading to a decrease in disproportions in the levels of development of its regions, which means - to strengthening the economic, social and territorial cohesion of the Union. Poland also was given a possibility of being supported from the EU resources of structural funds designed exclusively for the member-states and from the Cohesion Fund. The former are the basic instrument in realization of the structural and regional policy of the European Union.
The aim of their functioning is to support transformations, restructuring and modernization of the member-states, as well as to level the standards of development between regions, which exerts an influence on raising the degree of the economic and social cohesion of the EU member-states. The funds directed towards these sectors of economy which - without the financial support - are not able to catch up with the average level inside the European Union. The structural policy and funds are meant to assist the central authority and the regional authorities of less developed regions in solving their most difficult and pending economic problems.
Chart 1. Making use of structural means by the EU member-states (as of 16 January, 2009)2 Source: Own elaboration on the basis of http://www.funduszestrukturalne.gov.pl/
The structural funds include the following:
1 Ibidem, pp. 124-125.
2 The Ministry of Regional Development, "Utilization of means from structural funds and the cohesion fund within the framework of the national development plan 200-2006 and the national strategic frameworks of reference 20072013, monthly information for December 2008", Warszawa 2009, http: //www.funduszestrukturalne.gov.pl/
• European Regional Development Fund (EFRR);
• European Social Fund (EFS);
• European Orientation and Agricultural Guarantee Fund;
• Financial Instrument of Orientation of Fishing.
The structural funds make it possible for the EU to offer assistance in solving economic and social problems of structural character.
The Cohesion Fund subsidizes concrete projects, whose aim is improvement of the state of environment and development of transport infrastructure in the EU member-countries in which the GDP per capita does not exceed 90 % of the average for the Union (taking all the member-states together). The Fund does not belong to the group of Structural Funds due to the limited time of its operation. Still, it contributes to a rise in the level of cohesion in the area of the European Union. The considerable economic differences and backwardness of certain region of the EU leads to the situation where the European economy is more exposed to competitiveness on the part of other states and regions as regards the world market. Hence, the main goal of the structural funds is to strengthen the economic, social and cultural cohesion of member-regions.
Poland is one of the biggest beneficiaries of the European funds in Europe. The share of the means related to them rose from 1 % GDP in 2004 to 2.4 % in 2006.
On the basis of instructions issued by the European Union which determine major goals of the cohesion policy, and also taking into account the socioeconomic conditionings of Poland, Narodowe Strategiczne Ramy Odniesienia (NSRO) /National Strategic Frameworks of Reference / for the years 2007-2013 was prepared to support the economic growth and employment. It is an instrument for making references necessary to prepare operating programs taking - simultaneously - into account records of Strategia Rozwoju Kraju (SRK) /Strategy of Country's Development / for the years 2007-2015 and Krajowy Program Reform (KPR) /Country's Reform Program / for the years 2005-2008 referring to the records of Lisbon Strategy1 . The National Strategic Frameworks of Reference, popularly called Narodo-wa Strategia Spojnosci (NSS) /National Cohesion Strategy/, determines priorities and areas of utilizing, as well as the system of implementing the EU funds such as EFRR, EFS and the Cohesion Fund within the frameworks of the EU budget for the years 2007-2013. The strategic goal of the NSS is creation of conditions favoring an increase in competitiveness of the Polish economy, based on knowledge and entrepreneurship, securing a rise in employment rate and a growth in the economic, social and spatial cohesion. This aim will be realized through horizontal specific aims, that is improvement in the quality of functioning of public institutions and enlarging the mechanisms of partnership, improvement in the quality of human capital, and a rise in social cohesion, building and modernizing technical and social infrastructure which is of basic significance to the rise in Poland's competitiveness, raising the competitiveness and innovative assets of enterprises, in
1 Narodowe Strategiczne Ramy Odniesienia 2007-2013 (National Strategic Frameworks of Reference 2007-2013 supporting the economic growth and employment. National Cohesion Strategy, the document accepted on the power of the decision of the European Commission approving certain elements of National Strategic Frameworks of Reference, Ministry of Regional Development, Warszawa, May 2007, p. 4.
particular including those in manufacture sector with high added value, as well as development of the service sector, a rise in competitiveness of Poland's regions and prevention of their social, economic and spatial marginalization; also leveling developmental possibilities and supporting structural changes in rural areas. The aims of the NSS will be realized - apart from activities of legal, fiscal and institutional nature - by means of operating programs managed by the Ministry of Regional Development, regional operating programs managed by Boards of individual provinces and by means of projects co-financed on the part of structural instruments of the following:
• Program Infrastructure and Environment (EFRR and FS), 41 % of the total amount of means (EUR 27.9 billion);
• Program Innovatory Economy (EFRR), 12.4 % of the total amount of means (EUR 8.3 billion);
• Program Human Capital (EFS), 14.6 % of the total amount of means (EUR 9.7 billion);
• 16 regional programs (EFRR), 24.9 % of the total amount of means (EUR 16.6 billion);
• Program Development of the Eastern Poland (EFRR), 4 % of the total amount of means (EUR 2.3 billion);
• Program Technical Aid (EFRR), 0.8 % of the total amount of means (EUR 0.5 billion);
• Programs of the European Territorial Cooperation (EFRR), 1.4 % of the total amount of means (EUR 0.7 billion).
The remaining financial means within the frameworks of the structural funds and the Cohesion Fund will be appropriated for establishing the country's execution reserve (2 % of the allocation value, that is EUR 1.3 billion). The total sum of the means appropriated for realization of the National Cohesion Strategy will amount to about EUR 85.6 billion. Annually, until 2015, the average of EUR 9.5 billion will be spent each year, which equals about 5 % of the GDP. This amount includes EUR 67.3 billion from the EU budget, EUR 11.9 billion from the country's public means, including EUR 5.93 billion from the country's budget and about EUR 6.4 billion from private subjects. Expenditure within the cohesion policy will be coordinated with expenses earmarked for structural instruments of the Common Agricultural Policy and the Common Fishing Policy, as well as with the European programs connected with strengthening competitiveness. The total amount of means included in the realization of developmental actions, whose main element will be the NSS, will amount to a total of over EUR 107.9 billion, including EUR 85.4 billion of means coming from the EU1.
Every year results of a ranking are published in the columns of Wspolnota (The Commonwealth) - the publication of the territorial self-government - which sums up investment expenditure of self-governments on technical infrastructure since this constitutes over half of the investment in the province and in the county and over two thirds of the whole investment in the commune. While elaborating on the record, expenses rendered in fixed prices in the given year per capita are taken
1 The Ministry of Regional Development, "On the National Cohesion Strategy", 19 December, 2007, http: //www.funduszestrukturalne.gov.pl/
into account calculated as an average of three preceding years. In the contest referred to in the paper, it was an average of the years 2005-2007 that was calculated. As it follows from the ranking, it was already in 2005 that over half the subsidy came from foreign means, mainly from the European Union; in 2007 - the share of these means was even higher and they made about one fourth of all the investment expenditure of local governments. In 2007, in towns with the rights of county, funds coming from abroad constituted 84 % of the subsidies, amounting to PLN 3,041.5 million (including PLN 600 million from subsidies obtained directly by communal companies). The most important area of the investment is transport which 'consumes' over half the whole investment budget in provinces, counties and towns with the rights of county. In communes investments are made mainly in communal economy and agriculture; in urban-rural and in rural communes such investment is even greater than that connected with construction of local roads, although - it needs to be stressed that the share of the investment in communal economy is gradually getting lower. It follows from an analysis of support sources for local government investment that subsidies from the state budget are systematically losing their significance. It is only in counties that they are comparable to those from the European funds1.
Table 1. Financial means engaged in the NPR (2004-2006) _and the NSS (2007-013) (EUR billion)_
Years EU financial means Own financial means Sum of financial means EU financial means / average yearly Own financial means / average yearly Sum of financial means / average yearly
04-06 12.82 4.27 17.09 5.69 1.42 4.27
07-13 85.4 22.5 107.9 12.2 3.22 15.39
Source: Own elaboration on the basis of2
Ганович Е. Средство помощи Евросоюза для местного самоуправления коммун
Территориальное самоуправление, которое функционирует в демократической стране, является одной из основных идей современности. Местное самоуправление, как независимая административная единица, удовлетворяет потребности своих обитателей на основе таких источников финансирования, как: собственные средства; средства, предоставленные государством; средства, предусмотренные программами Европейского Союза. Анализ такой ситуации, на примере Польши, изложен в этой работе.
Ganowicz E. The assistance means of the European Union for self-governments of communes
The territorial self-government functioning in a democratic country is one of the fundamental ideas of a contemporary state. The commune - as an independent administrative unit - caters to the needs of its inhabitants on the basis of both the instruments granted to it by the state, in the form of its own tasks and those ordered by external bodies, and possibilities of obtaining means from the European Union. Analysis of such situation, on the example of Poland, expounded in the article._
1 Serwis Samorz^dowy PAP (Local Government Information Service), 8 October 2008, www.samorzad.pap.pl
2 Ibidem.
