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WHAT IS THE CITIZENSHIP QUALITY OF OUR COMMUNITY? MEASURING ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
Andi Ahmad Yani
MPA in Public Administration, MSc in Public Administration and Organizational Sciences PhD Candidate in Institute of Political Science, Leiden University, the Netherlands Senior Lecturer in Department of Administrative Science, Universitas Hasanuddin, Indonesia Address: Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan KM 10. 90245. Makassar, Indonesia. Email: aayani@unhas.ac.id
Andi Rahmat Hidayat
MSi in Administrative Development, Lecturer in Department of Political Science, Universitas Sulawesi Barat, Indonesia Junior Lecturer in Department of Administrative Science, Universitas Hasanuddin, Indonesia Address: Jl. Prof. Baharuddin Lopa. 91412. Majene, Indonesia Email: andirahmatfisip@gmail.com
Abstract
Citizenship is a core value of a democratic system that shapes political behavior of community members to be actively involved in the decision-making process and promote collaboration and reciprocity. However, we do not know how to assess the quality of the citizenship of our community. We need a method to analyze the degree of citizenship quality in order to ensure a sustainable and democratic environment. This study proposes a Citizenship Index based on the citizenship concept of Bellamy (2008) for measuring the degree of citizenship. Bellamy (Ibid) addresses three main indicators of citizenship: membership of a political community; collective duties and rights as a consequence of membership; and participation in the social and political process. The study was conducted in September-October 2016 using a survey method and 429 respondents who are citizens of Makassar City, Indonesia were interviewed. Based on the three variables of Bellamy's citizenship concept, this study found that the citizenship quality of Makassar citizens is active and strong in terms of getting engaged in development programs of the Makassar government. Moreover, Makassar citizens are altruistic and eager to collaborate with people from ethnicities and religious backgrounds. This method can help decision-makers to analyze and map the citizenship quality of a particular community as a consideration in formulating and implementing further public policies.
Keywords: citizenship; local development; participation; public administration, Indonesia.
Citation: Yani, A.A. & Hidayat, A.R. (2018). What is the Citizenship Quality of Our Community? Measuring Active Citizenship. Public Administration Issue, Special Issue II (electronic edition), pp. 119-133 (in English); DOI: 10.17323/1999-5431-2018-0-6-119-133
Introduction
The emergence of political and administrative reform in many parts of the world has led many scholars to reveal new perspectives in understanding citizens. In reality, it has become clear that many developed countries have put their people first and created viable ties to justify the relations between state and citizens. In fact, this atmosphere encourages citizens to play an active role in government business and it has also become evident that, at the same time, government would gain strong legitimacy by engaging people and encouraging them to actively participate in the development process.
A traditional way of defining citizenship is belonging to a particular country, with the rights and duties that involves (Zolo, 1994). This means that people will have rights and duties in their existence as human beings and as members of a certain political community. Another aspect that has contributed to the shift in citizen discourse has to do with technological progress and geopolitical developments which signal a new kind of more complex status and the role of citizens even at a global level. This approach emphasizes information and technology development that can channel people to increase their participation in social and government activities.
The Government of Indonesia, a relatively new democratic state, has been working to present its image in global communities by improving its economy, social, and political effectiveness. Of course, to reach this stage, the determinant factor for success is to focus on local activities and make sure that a set of public policies or development programs are well formulated and executed. However, this immediately brings forth a number of challenges to be overcome as social circumstances and the world of policy formulation and implementation are increasingly becoming more complex. In other words, success of a program or policy would be more likely to rely not just on the government's capacity but also on people's participation in supporting government's programs and policies.
In the study of public administration, citizen participation is not solely encouraged and directed by government. What is more important is the awareness of the citizens themselves who feel part of the community so they involve themselves in support of government programs. For instance, Denhardt and Denhardt (2000) argue that people who have the quality of active citizenship can be seen to possess the value of sharing responsibility between citizens and government officials. With this spirit, citizens actively collaborate with the government in solving problems and issues facing them. Based on this thought, it is important to conduct studies to measure and map the quality of citizenship in Indonesia, and Makassar City was taken to be a case of this research.
Theoretical background of citizenship concept
Citizenship has received much attention and become one of the most intriguing discourses in social science for quite some time. A great Greek philosopher, Aristotle, is known as the first to address the concept of citizenship and explains it as engagement of the people of Athens over decision-making processes which af-
fected their lives. The concept was later recognized widely and strongly associated with democratic ideas in terms of equality and citizens' participation in decision making (Gusteren, 1998).
Of course, there is no single definition of citizenship as many scholars have defined it based on their perspectives and disciplines. In sociology, for example, Turner (1993) calls citizenship a set of practices, law, politics, economy and cultures developed through the dynamics of social construction which define a person as competent from a certain community or state with all the consequences from which he or she becomes part of his or her community. In politics, we have Gusteren (1998) who explains citizenship as a system that makes individuals members of a political community, with two functions, as rulers and being ruled, and having three values, namely autonomy, judgement, and loyalty. Furthermore, Bellamy (2008), based on a governance perspective, elaborates the concept of citizenship in a way that all people must be treated equally by the state or government, referring to three basic elements: membership of an individual in a political community, fulfilment of rights, and obligations as citizens and their involvement in public life as its political existence.
In order to fully understand the concept of citizenship, it is therefore necessary to mention basic theory in which this concept has been developed. Gusteren (1998) identified three fundamental theories that constructed the concept of citizenship. First of all, liberal-individualism theory sees citizenship as being formed by two fundamental values; preferences and rights. This perspective is based on utilitarianism, meaning that individuals are viewed as utility-maximizers and they will act toward all social phenomena to maximize their gains. By this vein, it could be said that individual citizens would use their rights in a social and political process that takes place in their political community with consideration of having maximal benefit as a return within limitations not to disrupt others' rights and freedoms.
The second basic theory is communitarianism. This theory conceptualizes that individuals are a part of a society in which they behave in accordance with social norms and values that have existed for a long time. It develops the concept of citizenship as a result of value internalization within society which is based on existing social norms and values. Thus, implementation of autonomy, value and loyalty are dependent on an existing frame of thinking that prevails in society as a whole.
Republican theory, the third fundamental concept of citizenship, defines a citizen as a part of society that has a single value and tends to neglect value diversity. This view is likely to make an absolute community without paying much attention to the differences and characteristics of other communities. Therefore, based on this perspective, citizenship is seen as the process of valuing homogeneity via a certain political system.
Active Citizenship
Active citizenship, as Putnam stated, refers to civic engagement and aims to build social capital in order to construct shared values among people (Putnam, 1993). It can also be said that active citizenship is participation in society that ranges from cultural, political, and social to environmental activities at local, national, and even global level.
The European Union, for instance, has implemented a policy which aims to promote active citizens (Weerd, et al., 2005) .The ultimate goal of this "active citizens" is participation which drives civil society to come together in a collaborative endeavor with government and other parties in solving social problems. Nevertheless, there are different perspectives and normative aspects found in the literature about the definition of active citizens. Yet these differences have something in common which refers to participation and civil society.
Having considered the fundamental theories that contribute to the concept of citizenship, it is then possible to utilize a larger perspective to analyze citizenship in this research. As mentioned earlier, citizenship is strongly related to participation and equality in the concept of democracy. Participation in this context is defined as active involvement by citizens in political and social organizations in the process of decision making. The role of citizens in this process reflects the value of equality in expressing ideas, thoughts, and judgement over social problems they face.
This research employs the concept of citizenship offered by Richard Bellamy (2008). Bellamy, as noted before, proposes three main components in this concept namely: membership in a political community, fulfilment of social and political rights as consequences of communal benefits of their membership in a political community, and citizens' participation in social, economic and political processes. These three indicators were taken as a citizenship index variable which are being measured in this study.
Previous Researches
There have been a number of studies related to active citizens that show the importance of citizens' engagement in the success of policy formulation and implementation. Maignan and Ferrell (2000), for instance, conducted a literature review and survey to conceptualize corporate citizenship in the US and France with four constructed factors namely economy, legal, ethics, and discretionary citizenship. Blackburn (1999), in her article Women and Citizenship in Indonesia, examines Indonesian women's experiences regarding three issues (membership of the political community, rights and obligations associated with that membership, and participation in the life of that polity) and shows that Indonesia is required to accommodate gender perspective in its concept of citizenship due to its context and experiences in the past where women were frequently seen as a subordinate class in a polity. Miraftab and Wills (2005) tried to explain grassroot spaces for inclusive citizenship that goes beyond interpretation of formal citizen participation by studying the struggle of the poor in Cape Town, South Africa, to demand their constitutional rights and protection against neoliberal policies. Houtzager and Acharya (2010) examined civic engagement and comparative historical studies of democratization and found that associations (links between participation and citizenship activities) contribute to producing citizens who actively seek access to vital public goods and services. Moreover, the result also indicates that the level of active citizenship and the quality of this are independent entities.
However, citizenship has been developed by the western origin of the concept and this discourse has been dominated by western literature (Lee, 2004).
Given the increasing need for understanding the nature of the citizen at local level and in developing country cases, this study is one of the academic endeavors to capture and develop contextual conditions of local citizenship, especially in the case of Indonesia.
Research Method
This research was conducted in 14 sub-districts in the city of Makassar, Indonesia. Makassar is one of the metropolitan cities in Indonesia and has a heterogen-ic society with more than four ethnicities, six religions and two local languages. The study was conducted by survey method with face to face interviews and questionnaires. The number of samples was determined from the total population of 1 429 242 (Indonesian Bureau of Statistics, 2015).
The study employs multi stage random sampling with level of trust 95% and 0.05 margin of error. To maximize the results, we interviewed 420 respondents, hoping that 90% of our respondents completed the questionnaires appropriately without data missing in order to confirm the standard number of respondents that had been determined.
In attempts to quantify the quality of the value of citizenship index, we used the weighted average of each element of citizenship and measured 18 indicators in which each of these indicators has the same weighting as the following formula:
Number of weights 1
Weighted = --- = — = 0.055
Numbers of element 18
To obtain the value of quality of citizenship index we used the approach of weighted average value with the following formula:
The sum of perceived value per indicator
Citizenship Index =- x Weighing values
The total elements filled
In order to interpret the value of citizenship index (ranging from 25-100) easily, the result is converted with the basic value of 25 with the formula: CI x 25.
Table 1
Perception, Interval and Value of Citizenship Index
Perception Value Interval Value of IKM Interval Value Conversion of IKM Quality of Citizenship Degree of Citizenship
1 1.00-1.75 25-43.75 D Very Passive
2 1.76-2.50 43.76-62.50 C Passive
3 2.51-3.25 62.51-81.25 B Active
4 3.26-4.00 81.26-100 A Very Active
Using a weighting indicator system, the results show a significant number for each variable measured with a 95% significance level or < 0.05 (Santoso, 2010). Therefore, it could be said that this is valid and reliable. In line with Cooper and Schindler (2008), when the measuring instrument used is invalid or unreliable, the results will not describe the actual situation. Therefore, to test the questionnaire as a research instrument, the test of validity and test of reliability is applied with a significance level of 95% or = < = 0.05.
Research Results and Discussion Membership in Community
Being a citizen in a political community generally requires a certain process. Those who have already passed the process of being initiated as part of a group then gain recognition with a certain identity. This identity can be in physical form such as cards, uniforms, or other physical signs and symbols. Identity as part of a group can also be in a non-physical form such as self-acknowledgement by positioning itself as a representation of the community in which a person becomes a member or a citizen. Self-recognition of being a member in a social entity engenders an individual consciousness to act and contribute to its society. Bellamy (2008) states that awareness as a member in a society can be analyzed based on six factors, as follows:
1. Every individual feels accepted as a citizen regardless of ethnic or religious background.
2. Every individual has a desire to contribute to their community.
3. Every individual has a positive nature regarding paying taxes to the state.
4. Every individual has an awareness to evaluate the government.
5. Each individual has the ability to argue independently.
6. Every individual feels part of the community.
The results of the survey using the above six factors in Makassar can be seen in the Table 2.
Table 2
The Value of Membership in Society
Membership in Society Value
Acceptance regardless of ethnic and religious background 3.09
Desire to contribute 3.11
Paying taxes 3.01
Awareness to evaluate government 2.97
Ability to make opinion independently 3.17
Feeling part of the community 2.94
The first variable measures the extent to which a person's consciousness feels accepted as a part of the society in which they are located. As an area with a heterogeneous society, every citizen of Makassar City hopes to be accepted as a citi-
zen regardless of religion, ethnicity, or ethnic background. A stronger value in this variable indicates that the quality of citizenship in the area is more active with a high civic capacity. On the contrary, a weaker value indicates that a particular society is in a segregated state.
It appears, as shown above, that the respondent has a value of 3.09 which indicates strong citizenship. This value indicates that the people of Makassar City are open in accepting every individual to be a citizen of Makassar regardless of religious, tribal, or ethnic background.
The second variable identifies the desire to do something for society. As a member of a community, every citizen desires to contribute to their community. The higher value of this variable indicates that the community has an active citizen in terms of doing something for the community. On the contrary, the weakness of this variable value indicates that many citizens only take profits as members but do not want to do something for their community. In economic concepts, such individuals are known as free riders and this can be serious problems, leading to market failure.
The table above shows the value of 3.11, which reveals a low number of free riders in Makassar because people generally have a desire to contribute to the community. These results also show that Makassareses tend to have a high civic capacity.
The third variable shows the real form of citizens' contribution to their country by paying taxes. In this regard, several studies show that citizens' willingness to pay taxes is strongly influenced by their level of trust in government (Rhostein, 2005; Scholz & Lubell, 1998). A higher value of this variable indicates that people believe in their institutions and are willing to pay taxes. On the contrary, a lower desire to pay taxes means that the level of trust in the state is also low and people do not consider themselves as part of the community.
The variable value of the tax-paying desire is 3.01, meaning the value of citizenship of the people of Makassar City is strong regarding paying taxes to the state. This value also indicates the high trust of the citizens of Makassar in the government.
The fourth variable is the awareness of evaluating the government as an indicator of critical awareness of citizens in assessing government performance. As part of society, a citizen must be active in controlling the course of government and this shows the sense of ownership of political communion. With the active participation of every citizen in performing the control function in government, it will make the civil society stronger. The value of 2.97 indicates that the people of Makassar City have a strong desire in terms of running the control function.
The fifth variable is the ability to argue independently as a measure of civic capacity that considers itself an independent community member in thinking. This value also means that every citizen has no pressure or fear of stating an opinion. A higher value indicates that the level of independence of citizens in proposing opinions as a form of manifestation of one of the human rights guaranteed by the 1945 Act of freedom of expression. But if the value of this ability to argue independently is low, it indicates that the society is part of a tyranny of power that castrates everyone's fundamental freedom to argue. The state's guarantee of freedom provides benefits to citizens as part of the political entity of the Indonesian state.
The survey results show the value of freedom of expression as written in Table 3 above is 3.17 or a "strong" citizenship value. This data indicates that the citizens of Makassar City have freedom of expression as part of an Indonesian political entity which provides legal guarantees to be independent in submitting an opinion.
The sixth variable is the value of consciousness as a part of society that shows the quality of responsibility to be part of a political entity. When a person feels part of a political entity, their loyalty to the prevailing community values will be stronger. Feeling part of the community also shows that they are committed to engaging in community activities.
This data shows that the citizens of Makassar have a strong responsibility to follow the values that apply as a form of its manifestation as a member of society. This data also indicates that the citizens of Makassar City have a strong desire to always contribute to the community as has been parsed on the previous variable.
Rights Fulfillment as Citizens
Every citizen has the right to be fulfilled and protected by the state. Each country has a set of rights stipulated in its own legislation. Nevertheless, almost every country in the world recognizes the universal application of human rights and is included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In the UN Charter, human rights are grouped into six categories, namely personal rights, property rights, political rights, legal equality rights, social and cultural rights, and the right to equal treatment in procedural rights.
Based on the concept of human rights, Bellamy (2008) then parses six factors that determine the variable fulfillment of the right as citizens to measure the quality of citizenship of a society. The six factors are:
1. Fulfillment of rights is treated equally before the law
2. Fulfillment of the right to education
3. Fulfillment of the right to health service
4. Fulfillment of the right to security
5. Feelings of political rights fulfillment
6. Fulfillment of rights without discrimination
The results of a survey based on the six factors above are presented in Table 3 below:
Table 3
Value of Fulfilling Rights as Citizens
Fulfillment of Rights as Citizens Value
Fulfillment of rights is treated equally before the law 2.95
Fulfillment of right to education 2.96
Fulfillment of right to health service 2.86
Fulfillment of right to security 2.95
Feelings of political rights fulfillment 2.94
Fulfillment of rights without discrimination 3.00
The first variable shows the public perception of the fulfillment of the right to equal treatment before the law becomes the main foundation in civil society. When all citizens are guaranteed the fulfillment of the right to equal treatment before the law then law enforcement efforts can be well implemented. This condition will affect public trust in the legal institutions. Ultimately, security and order in a society can be well maintained. The survey results in the field indicate that the index value on the fulfillment factor of the rights required equal before the law is 2.95 or the value of "strong" citizenship. This data shows that the people of Makassar City have a positive perception on the fulfillment of the right to receive equal treatment before the law. This data also indicates the confidence of the citizens of Makassar City in legal institutions is high enough, which is certainly expected to support law enforcement efforts.
The second variable is the public perception of the fulfillment of the right to receive good educational service. Education is a fundamental service for all citizens which must be provided by the government. Citizens' perceptions of the fulfillment of the right to quality educational service show that the government has decent performance in providing this basic service. Data from the survey results in the field indicate that the value of the fulfillment index of education service rights of Makassar City is 2.96 or is in the value of interval with a strong civic value. This data indicates that the people of Makassar City appreciate the performance of the Government of Makassar City in the provision of educational services. Positive assessment of the citizens of Makassar City on the fulfillment of the right to education services has a positive impact on improving the quality of citizenship of Makassar.
The third variable is the perception of the fulfillment of the right to a health service that shows the quality of health service performance in the community. Health services are also a basic service for citizens that provides easy access for every citizen to various types of health services, wherever they are. The high value of the fulfillment of the right to health services shows a high appreciation by the people of Makassar for the performance of health services provided by the Government of Makassar. The survey data shows that the index of fulfillment of the right to health services is 2.86, which represents the value of "strong" citizenship. The positive appreciation of the respondents on the fulfillment of the right to health services shows the high-quality performance of the Government of Makassar City on health services. This certainly cannot be separated from the innovations of the Mayor of Makassar in the field of health, especially the Dottoro'ta program that provides car facilities as mobile services in every community health station in order to ensure that all citizens can access health assistance effectively for free.
The fourth variable is the fulfillment of the right to security services that measure people's perceptions of security as a citizen. Gaining a sense of security is a fundamental right for every citizen guaranteed by a country. The high value of perceptions of the fulfillment of security rights also affects the level of citizens' trust in the state. On the other hand, the low perception of the fulfillment of the right to security indicates the failure of the state to provide a security guarantee for its citizens, which has an impact on the low trust value of
the citizens to the government. This condition will certainly affect the political legitimacy of a government and become the threshold of the collapse of social capital building of a society.
The result of the survey in Makassar City shows the value of the security fulfillment index is 2.95 which shows the value of citizenship of Makassar city which is "strong". This data shows that the people of Makassar City have a high sense of security and a positive appreciation of the security services so far. This data also indicates the misconception of public opinion that the citizens of Makassar City feel unsafe due to the rise of criminal action or motorcycle gangs occurring during this study was conducted. However, this condition still requires further research. Therefore, the performance of the security services provided by the Government of Makassar City in cooperation with the security forces must be improved.
The fifth variable is the fulfillment of the political right to measure public perception of the freedom of every citizen to engage in various political activities without having to experience fear or intimidation of a particular group. Political rights are linked to the right to group and union and the right to engage in political activities.
High perceptions of citizens' values on the fulfillment of these political rights indicate the healthy political dynamics of a society. But if the value of perceptions of political rights fulfillment is low, then the condition indicates the growth of political authoritarianism in the society.
The result of the survey in the field shows the value of the index of political rights fulfillment of Makassar citizens is 2.94 which means the value of "strong" citizenship. This data indicates that the citizens of Makassar City are active in political activities and are unionized without having to experience concerns over differences in the color of certain political choices. This data also shows the quality of local democracy in Makassar is so dynamic and positive that it can contribute to the strengthening of civil society structures.
The sixth variable is the perception of citizens on the fulfillment of rights without discrimination which shows the level of equality and respect for differences of ethnicity, religion, and ethnicity as well as other identities of fellow citizens. This indicator of rights fulfillment without discrimination is an important issue, especially for the cosmopolitan community where its citizens are made up of diverse groups. The higher the value of public perception of the fulfillment of rights without discrimination, the stronger the value of equality of a society. Conversely, the lower the index value of rights fulfillment without discrimination, the weaker the quality of citizenship of a society.
The result of the field survey shows that the value of index of rights fulfillment without discrimination is 3.00 which means that the value of citizenship of Makassar is in the "strong" position.
This data shows that the people of Makassar city appreciate the fulfillment of the right of every citizen regardless of ethnic, religious, ethnic or other identity. This data also shows the positive appreciation of Makassar City residents regarding the application of equality values and in the efforts of the state to fulfill these rights.
Level of Citizens Participation
Having previously discussed the value of citizenship related to the fulfillment of citizens' rights, this latter value is related to the quality of citizen participation which refers to the realization of the obligations of every citizen in a social community. The balance between rights fulfillment for citizens and their obligations becomes the main foundation in building a civil society. Participation is also one of the values in democracy that provides the opportunity for all citizens to engage in political processes such as the policy-making process or the election process.
Bellamy (2008) states six factors to explain value of participation. This value is argued to have an implication in the quality of citizenship and the six aspects can be seen as follows:
1. Participate in meetings
2. Participate in every public activity
3. Participate in politics
4. Participate in social activities
5. Participate in maintaining security and order
6. Participate in support of government programs
The results of the survey conducted in Makassar by using these six factors to measure value of citizens' participation are presented in Table 4 below:
Table 4
Value of Citizens Participation
Citizens Participation Value
Participate in meetings 3.00
Participate in every public activity 3.00
Participate in politics 3.17
Participate in social activities 3.01
Participate in maintaining security and order 3.05
Participate in support of government programs 3.06
The first variable measures a person's awareness about caring about what is happening around them by being present and involved at every citizen meeting. Attendance at community meetings indicates a person's commitment to engage and collaborate with the community. A stronger value in this variable indicates that the quality of citizenship in the area is more active with a high civic capacity. On the contrary, a weaker value indicates an apathetic public character or one which does not care about the surrounding conditions and reluctantly engage in meetings that discuss the surrounding conditions.
In Table 4 above, it can be clearly seen that the index value is 3.00 which refers to the value of ''strong'' citizenship. This indicates that the desire of residents to participate in public meetings is high and the desire of the citizens to collaborate with other residents to solve common problems is strong.
The second variable indicates the desire of the citizens to participate in any activities undertaken by the residents in their vicinity, such as consecration or celebration of Independence Day. Citizens' commitment to contribute to their communities by engaging in activities initiated by fellow citizens indicates a quality of active citizenship. The higher the value of this variable indicates that the community has active citizens in which they are willing to cooperate in taking real action, not only by their presence in discussion or public meeting. On the contrary, the weakness of this variable value indicates a lack of sense of belonging and togetherness among citizens.
Table 4 above shows an index value of 3.00 which means that the people of Makassar generally have a desire to contribute to their community by being actively involved in the activities organized by local people. These results also show that people in Makassar have a high civic capacity.
The third variable indicates the willingness of the residents to participate in political activity, especially in the general election or regional head election. These political events range from the elections of members of DPRD, DPR and DPD, President elections, and Governor and Regent / Mayor elections. In addition, elections at the lowest level of government are also held for choosing a chief of RW / RT.
For a variable of participation in political events, it presents a value of 3.17, which means that the value of citizenship in Makassar is high. In other words, the people are willing to actively participate in political events. This value also indicates high public confidence in the political system by actively engaging in electoral or similar activities.
The fourth variable indicates the quality of citizenship to participate in social activities, showing the high value of altruism in the community. The involvement of a citizen in social activities requires his or her own commitment and willingness to sacrifice time, labor, or expense for others. The high value of participation in social activities shows the strength of social capital in a particular social community. Conversely, the low value of participation in social activities indicates the high value of individuality in a society.
Table 4 above shows 3.07 which means the willingness of Makassar City residents to participate in social activities. This data indicates that the people have a high altruism value and this data also indicates the strength of social capital owned by the people of Makassar by showing the value of desire to share common things with each other (reciprocity value).
The fifth variable indicates the willingness of the people of Makassar City to participate in maintaining security and order. The need for security and orderliness is a fundamental requirement in presenting a modern city like the City of Makassar. Therefore, security and order are not only the responsibility of the government, but there is also the question of how to encourage citizens to play active role in this matter as well.
A value of 3.05 presented in Table 4 above means that there is a strong desire of citizens to participate in maintaining security and order. The data shows the commitment of the people of Makassar City to actively participate in maintaining security and order in their surrounding environment. This data indicates the high
social responsibility of Makassar City residents to eliminate the bad impression of Makassar as an unsafe city. To that end, the government should appreciate this condition by establishing collaboration with citizens to help maintain the security and order in the city.
The sixth variable indicates willingness of the citizens to support the government's programs. The success of Makassar City government in realizing various programs such as education, healthcare, cleanliness, and other programs is not only the responsibility and success of the government but it is also supported by the people in order to achieve the goals of those programs.
Table 4 above shows 3.06 for this aspect. This means that citizens' willingness to participate in supporting various government programs is strong. This data indicates the appreciation of Makassar City residents toward various programs set and implemented by Makassar City government. For example, the appreciation of the people toward the innovative programs conducted by Mayor Danny Pomanto in development activities which engaged with communities, such as the Garbage Bank, is high and well appreciated.
Based on the three variables of the Citizenship Index that have been parsed above, the Value of the Citizenship Index of Makassar City is 78.70, or indicates the quality of active citizenship. This data shows that the quality of Makassar City residents is quite good although not yet at the highest level of citizenship quality that is very active. This data also indicates that the people of Makassar City have high civic skills and social capital that is still quite strong.
Based on three variables of citizenship index of Makassar, the survey results show that the major capital is citizens' participation, followed by their awareness as citizens and perception over the fulfillment of their rights. Moreover, this data reveals that citizens of Makassar City have a high altruistic attitude that can be confirmed by their tendency to do a favour for their fellow citizens and the high level of their participation. However, the data also reveal another story where they feel less satisfied on health care services provided by the government.
Conclusion
The dominant role of the government and the market in the administration of the state has limitations and seems to deny the principles of democracy. Therefore, the role of citizens to be involved in sharing responsibility in the implementation of any government business is the main agenda in order to encourage citizen participation and responsive governance. The role of citizens in the organization of the state is influenced by the civic skill possessed by citizens which is reflected in the quality of citizenship of a society.
This study offers a model for measuring the quality of citizenship by using the theory proposed by Bellamy (2008) which consists of three variables, namely (1) awareness of membership in society, (2) perception of fulfillment of citizen rights and, (3) level of participation in society.
Among the three variables of citizenship quality, Makassar residents have a fairly high index value in the variable "participation in society". This data indicates that the citizens have a high altruism value. Nevertheless, the index value of
"perception of rights fulfillment as citizens" is the lowest compared to other variables. This shows that the government's performance in delivering public services as the rights of citizens, especially in healthcare, is still ineffective. However, the data does not mean that health services in Makassar are bad, yet it shows that residents' expectation of basic service fulfillment are not met with the current condition of public service delivery.
In addition, further studies of citizenship quality must be continually conducted. These studies may explore possible factors that may influence the level of citizenship quality either in urban or rural areas. Moreover, more empirical studies with bigger samples should also be conducted to explore causal patterns among peaceful and post conflict societies.
Finally, this study has limitations in terms of the low number of samples used to represent the population of Makassar. In addition, the personal evaluation methods used in assessing citizenship variables may have bias, in the context that participants may have been influenced by news coverage in the media at the time this survey was conducted.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to appreciate comments and suggestions from anonymous reviewers. The study was funded by the Research Grant of the Government of Makassar City. The authors confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.
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