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19УДК 94(5-011)
Ш 697 © Эрик Шлюссель
ВОСТОЧНОТУРКЕСТАНСКОЕ «РУКОВОДСТВО ДЛЯ САПОЖНИКОВ»
Данная статья посвящена анализу рисала - текстов, регламентирующих какое-либо ремесло. Автор анализирует конкретную рукопись: Руководство для сапожников. Оно является важным культурным документом и выступает в качестве письменного свидетельсва о легендах общества, обычаях и ритуалах.
Ключевые слова: Руководство для сапожников, руководство по ремеслу, текст.
Eric Schluessel
AN EAST TURKESTANI MANUAL OF THE COBBLERS
This article is devoted to analysis of resala - the texts regulating any craft. The author analyzes the specific manuscript: Manual of the Cobblers. It is an important cultural document and word-processed books have acted as a written record of the legends of these communities and of their common mores and rituals. Keywords: Manual of the Cobblers, Craft manual, text.
One of the most ubiquitous genres of written work in Central Asia is a legendary and liturgical text peculiar to a given professional community that its users call a risala and Western philologists a "craft manual." For at least four centuries and through the present day, these small manuscript, lithographed, or word-processed books have acted as a written record of the legends of these communities and of their common mores and rituals. As such, the craft manual is an important cultural document that provides a rare internal view of a spiritual and social world. Yet, it is a genre that has only recently, in a single landmark study (Dagyeli, 2011), received the level of scholarly attention appropriate to its pervasiveness in everyday life in Central Asia. I present here one such manual and a commentary on its meanings and importance.
To my knowledge, no such manual has been translated in its entirety into any language, save for the translation of some from Persian into Turkic within the original textual tradition. Where partial translations have been prepared, they have focused on the folkloric aspects of the crafts' origin myths and their possible relationship to a putative world of pre-Islamic mythology (Sakharova, 1960, 1984). Such scholarship has been dedicated to demonstrating the continuity of national culture at the expense of understanding the function of the texts in their contemporary social and cultural context. This is a mistake for two reasons. Firstly, the manuals are not primarily records of a craft community's practices and structure, but rather liturgical texts used to prepare and guide participation in rituals. As such, they are complex texts, and they are interesting for their common structure and relation to orality, while they provide little data for economic history or theory. Secondly, Turkologists have
avoided discussing the explicitly Islamic moral content and intertextuality of the manuals. It is undeniable that the content of the manuals is primarily Islamic (or "Islamicate" [Hodgson, 59]) and that the people who historically used these manuals, when they read the stories of the Prophet Dawud or recited a prayer to God, related the text to the daily prayers, to sacred history as exemplified by the "stories of the prophets" genre, to the Qur'an, and to the Sufi dhikr. Indeed, previous commenters have almost totally ignored the fact that all such manuals instruct their users to recite specific Qur'anic passages.
Also missing from previous analyses is an acknowledgment that the character of these texts is primarily Sufi and only secondarily industrial. It is common to refer to these craft groups as "guilds," partly in order to draw out a weak analogy to European guilds and thereby imply the existence of precapitalist organizations in the Islamic world, and partly in order to emphasize a connection with craft groups in Anatolia and the Maghreb. Not once in the archive of craft manuals from 19-20 c. East Turkestan, however, does a term meaning specifically "guild" appear. Rather, the groups self-identified as tariqah, Sufi circles or "paths." This may remind us that, in order to carry out their rituals, including initiations, elevations, and periodic meetings, every craft group required the participation of a Sufi master who would demonstrate full mastery of the guild's lore and recitative formulae. The formal title for this master varied greatly across the Islamic world, but in East Turkestan, the term sahib takbir was current. The name means "master of the recitative formula": Takbir in this context refers not only to the common formula Allahu akbar "God is great," but also to a range of other prayers and physical movements and positions peculiar to the guild. As such, I translate the term sahib takbir as "recitation master." I do so in part to emphasize the special place of the recitation master in the community beyond the craft group: The minimal scholarship on recitation masters indicates that they served multiple craft groups, that they held regular "office hours" in a garden or other public space, and that many of them became successful political leaders. It seems, then, that authority in the craft group related to social authority more broadly (Qaraqutluq, 2006).
The example presented below is Jarring Prov. 43, the "Manual of the Cobblers" (Risala-ye muzadozi) held in the Jarring Collection of East Turkestani manuscripts at Lund University in Sweden. I have chosen this manual for its typicality of the genre, but also in part for its brevity. The folio itself, like all craft manuals, is small enough in size (175x110 mm) to be carried on a master's person, tucked into his belt. Other manuals can be ten times its length, and their contents can be very repetitive. This "Manual of the Cobblers" presents all of the essential parts of a manual in minimal space. This manual also provides a good opportunity for textual comparison, as cobblers' manuals are especially common in Turkological collections in Europe, including Berlin and St. Petersburg. Where necessary for clarification, I have compared the manuscript with parallel passages in Jarring Prov. 500, another, much longer and more complex "Manual of the Cobblers" in the Jarring Collection. I note, however, that the length of these manuals varies
considerably, even among contemporaneous specimens from a single region, and that their contents can differ greatly. Therefore, it is almost certainly an error to label them separate redactions of a single text, as Jarring has done in his catalog to the collection.
It should be noted that Jarring Prov. 43 was copied specifically for Gunnar Jarring during his brief visit to Kashgar in 1930, and that its origins may account for its brevity and some of its irregularities. The Swedish missionaries then active in East Turkestan had encouraged the market for copies of manuals, as they often collected such texts for language study in service of oral evangelization and the translation of the Bible and other Christian stories. While the Jarring Collection holds many originals, and it is not difficult to purchase such manuals freely on the open market, copies were made either by native employees of the Mission or by paid scribes. It is likely that, as the copyist wrote this manual out in a Soviet-made notebook, he omitted sensitive knowledge or fabricated manuals wholesale or out of multiple sources. Therefore, while I assert that Jarring Prov. 43 is typical of the genre, it should not be taken to be positively authentic.
In order to facilitate analysis, I will proceed by presenting sections of the text in transliteration and translation interspersed with commentary. I have adopted an emerging standard for transliterating Eastern Turki that avoids archaisms in Turkic while respecting the self-consciously religious character of the text by reproducing Persian and Arabic according to their respective orthographies. While the system broadly follows the Encyclopedia of Islam, I have used /j/ for the voiced alveolar affricate. The symbol /p/ indicates a voiceless bilabial stop written with a fa'. Folios are indicated within brackets [ ]. In order to reduce footnotes, I have indicated my editorial alterations to the original manuscript, such as corrections of spelling and of omissions, in parentheses ( ). All renderings of Qur'anic passages are from Marmaduke Pickthall's English translation, and individual verses are noted with Q (chapter):(verse), i.e. Q 43:60.
Introduction and Exhortation
Commentary
The manual begins with a title, the basmala, and a formulaic praise of God. It continues, as is typical, with a treatise attributed to Sadiq Ja'fari (702-765), the Sixth Imam and an important Sufi thinker and Islamic jurist. The available craft manuals universally ascribe their origins to this figure. Usually, the narrative of the craft's origins comes before the discussion of lore and moral duties, but, in this case, their positions are reversed. The manual exhorts community members to abide by its prescriptions. It proceeds in a question-and-answer format to outline the lore of the craft community. This history relates every practice expected of a professional to sacred pre-Islamic, early Islamic, and Sufi history. The manual also explicit draws a parallel between the transmission of the craft across time and in the present community: The recitation master is akin to God, who sends the revelation of the craft to one of his prophets, "in whose place" the new initiate "sits."
Text
[1b] Risala-ye muzadozi. Bismi-llahi r-rahmani r-rahim. Al hamd 'l-lah rabb al-'alamin, wa-l-'aqibatu 'l-il-mutaqqiyuna, wa-l-salwatu wa al-salam 'ali rasula Muhammadin wa ala wa ashaba [2a] ijma'in.
"The Manual of the Cobblers." In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds. And "the sequel is for those who keep their duty unto him" (Q 7:128). And peace and blessings be upon the great messenger Muhammad and on his family and companions.
Amma ba'd imam ja'far al-sadiq wa rahnama-ye muwafiq andag riwayat qilibdurlar kim:
And then Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq the Propitious Guide related:
Sayhlar wa naqiblar wa ahl-e tahqiqlar wa darwislar wa hanqah nasinlar wa sahib takbirlar wa kasiblar hazrat Adam paygambar Nuh paygambar Ibrahim paygambar hazrat [2b] Muhammad rasul 'l-allahniq orunlarida olturub takbir ayturlar. Bu takbirlarni bilmasa ularga takbir aytmaq islah rawa(h) ermas har luqma ke tafib yaydur haram turur. Qiyamat kunida pir ustadlarniq aldida takbirlarni bilmay eytsalar sermsa(r) bolub pir ustadlar benazar bolgusidur. Har takbirlarni bilib eytsalar, jami' pir ustadlarniq ruhi hosnod bolub [3a] subu insanlarniq gunahlariniq 'afu bolusini hazrat haqq subhanah wa ta'alladin tilagay.
The shaykhs and naqibs1 and philosophers and dervishes and lodge-dwellers and recitation masters and craftsmen sit in the place of the great prophet Adam, the prophet Nuh, the prophet Ibrahim, and the great Muhammad the Messenger of God and recite the takbir. If they do not know these takbirs, then reciting the takbir is neither correct nor proper for them. Every mouthful of food they earn and eat is forbidden. If, on the Day of Reckoning, they recite the takbirs, without knowing them, before the old masters, they will be shamed, and the old masters will not look upon them. If they recite all of the takbirs and know them, then the spirits of the collected old masters will be pleased, and they will ask the great Lord Most High for the forgiveness of these people's sins.
Har insan takbir eytsa subu tariqada takbir eytqaylar: Cahar piri sari'at, cahar piri haqiqat, cahar piri ma'arifat, cahar piri madhab, cahar piri safiq, bir pirni, yerim pirni, takbir-i riza, takbir-i sifa, takbir-i mulk, takbir-i mawquf, takbir-i qibla', takbir-i mihrab: har qaysi [3b] takbirlarni oz muratabalarida bilib takbir eytsunlar.
Whatsoever person recites the takbir, that person shall recite it in this order: The four masters of the Law, the four masters of Truth, the four masters of Gnosis, the four masters of the Sects, and the four masters of Compassion; one master, half a master; the takbir of contentment, the takbir of purity, the takbir
1 Naqlb in the context of the Islamic craft group and Sufï tarïqah denotes "most often a lieutenant to the leader of the group (and occasionally a kind of 'ceremonial' and 'executive' representative for the group's spiritual head)." See (DeWeese 1995: 615). DeWeese gives citations for further discussion.
of possessing, the takbir of bestowing, the takbir of the qiblah, the takbir of the mihrab: they should know each takbir in its own number and recite the takbir.
Agar sorsalar kim takbir eytmaq farzmu, ya wajibmu, ya sunnatmu, jawab: Allah haqq subhana wa ta'alla hazrat Jibra'il aliya al-salamga amr qildi; farz boldi. Hazrat Jibra'il paygambarlarga ta'lim bardilar wajib boldi. Paygambarlar 'ummatlariga ta'lim bardilar; sunnat boldi.
If they ask if reciting the takbir is obligatory, necessary, or tradition, the response is: God Most High ordered it to the great Gabriel PBUH. It became required. The great Gabriel bestowed it upon the prophets. It became recommended. The prophets bestowed it upon their communities. It became tradition.
Su'al: Cahar piri sari'at [4a] qaysidur? Jawab: Awwal hazrat Adami safiyu 'l-lah. Dowwam Nuh nubi 'l-lah. Sowwam Ibrahim halilu 'l-lah. Caharum hazrat Muhammad rasulu 'l-lah turur.
Question: Which are the four masters of the Law? Answer: The first is the great Adam, the Purity of God. The second is Nuh, the Word of God. The third is Ibrahim, the Friend of God. The fourth is the great Muhammad, the Messenger of God.
Tort kitab qaysidur? Awwal turat Musaga kalgan. Injil 'Isaga kalgan. Zabur Dawudga kalgan. Farqan hazrat rasulu 'l-lahga kalgan tururlar.
Which are the four books? First, the Torah came to Moses. The Evangelion came to Jesus. The Psalms came to David. The Qur'an came to the Prophet of God.
Cahar piri tariqat: Awwal hazrat [4b] (Abu Bakr). Duwwam hazrat 'Umr. Ucunci hazrat 'Uthman. Tortinci hazrat 'Ali Karamu 'l-lah wajha tururlar.
The four masters of the Path (tariqah): The first is the great [Abu Bakr]. The second is the great 'Umr. The third is the great 'Uthman. The fourth is the great 'Ali, may God favor him.
Cahar piri haqiqat: Awwal hazrat Jibra'il. Duwwam hazrat Mika'il. Suwwam hazrat Israfil. Caharum hazrat 'Adra'il turur.
The four masters of the Truth: First, the great Jibra'il. Second, the great Mika'il. Third, the great Isfafil. Fourth, the great 'Adra'il.
Su'al: Tort takbir qaysi? Jawab: Allahu akbar allahu akbar la ila ala allah[?] wa allahu akbar allahu akbar wa ala al-Muhammad demak kerak.
Question: Which are the four takbir? Answer: One must say: God is great, God is great. There is no God but God. And God is great, God is great, and the God of Muhammad.
Su'al: Tort [5a] (piri) madahib qaysi? Jawab: Awwal hazrat Imam-i 'Azam. Duwwam imam Saf i. Suwwam hazrat imam Hanbal. Caharum hazrat imam Malik tururlar.
Question: Which are [the masters of] the Four Sects? Answer: The first is the great Imam-i 'Azam (Abu Hanifa). The second is the Imam Saf i. The third is the Imam Hanbal. The fourth is the Imam Malik.
(Su'al: Tort piri tariqat qaysi turur?) Sams Tabrizi, Mawlana Rumi, Hwaja Hafiz Sirazi, hazrat Sayh 'Attar wali tururlar.
(Question: Which are the four masters of the Path?) They are Shams Tabriz!, Mawlana Rumi, Khwaja Hafiz Shirazi, and the great saint Shaykh 'Attar.
Tort piri safaq qaysidur? Awwal ata. Ikkinci ana. Ucunci mu'allim. Tortunci ustadi tururlar.
Which are the four masters of compassion? First, father. Second, mother. Third, teacher. Fourth, one's master.
Agar sorsalar kim takbir-i mulk qaysidur, [5b] jawab: Takbir-i mulk hazrat Adam paygambarga kaldi. Hazrat Adam paygambar dunyadin naqil qildilar. Farzandilariga qaldi. Ani takbir-i mulk derlar.
If they ask which is the takbir of possession, the answer is: The takbir of possession came to the great prophet Adam. The great prophet Adam departed from the world. It fell to his children. They call this the takbir of possession.
Agar sorsalar kim takbir-i mawquf qaysi tururlar, jawab: Sayyiddin bolak kisi takbir eytsa, ani takbir-i mawquf derlar.
If they ask which is the takbir of bestowing, the answer is: If someone who is not a sayyid recites the takbir, then they call this the takbir of bestowing.
Hutba-i takbir qaysi? Fatiha wa hulasni oqumaqdur.
What is the khutba of the takbir? It is reciting the fatiha and the hulas prayer.
Qibla-i takbir [6a] qaysi dur? Jawab: Du'a qilurda qiblaga baqib olturub du'a qilmaq kerak.
What is the direction of prayer for the takbir? Answer: When one prays, one must sit facing the qiblah and recite prayers.
Agar sorsalar kim sakta takbir qaysidur, al-jawab: du'aniq awwalida wa ahirida hazrat Muhammad amin mustafa sali 'l-lah 'aliya wa-sallamga durud ibarmak kerak.
If they ask what the silent takbir is, the answer: At the beginning and end of the prayer, one must sent a prayer asking for intercession to the great Muhammad PBUH.
Har sahib takbir bu tariqat-namani bu tartiblar birlan bilmak kerakdur.
Every recitation master must know this account of the Path in this order.
[6b]
Agar sorsalar kim gusl-i sari'at nema birlan pak bolur, jawab: Su birlan pak bolur. Gusl-i tariqat takbir birlan pak bolur.
If they ask with what the lawful ablutions will become pure, the answer is: They will become pure with water. The ablutions specified by the Path will become pure with takbir.
Agar sorsalar kim sahib takbirga nacca nimarsa wajibdur, awwal taharat birlan bolmaq. Ikkinci fatiha wa ihlas wa durudlarni pir ustadlarniq haqqida oqugay. Sari'at, haqiqat, wa tariqat bayan [7a] qilib olturgay. Rizqni halal yegay. Haramdin perhiz qilgay. Hazrat paygambar 'aliya wa sallamniq sari'atlari birlan 'aml qilgay.
If they ask what is required of a recitation master, first, he must have done ablutions. The second is that he should recite the fatiha, the ihlas, and the durud prayers for the old masters. He shall keep explaining [7a] the Law, the
Truth, and the Path. He shall eat for his daily bread what is permitted. He shall abstain from what is forbidden. He shall operate according to the law of the great Messenger PBUH.
Agar sorsalar kim takbir eytmaq kimdin qaldi, jawab: Hazrat Ibrahim paygambardin qaldi.
If they ask from whom reciting the takbir came, the response is: it came from the great prophet Ibrahim.
Har kasib risala saqlamisa risala bilan 'aml qilmasa qiyamat kuni piri [7b] ustadlar aldida ruswa[y] sarmanda bolgay. Wa risala saqlasa risala birlan 'aml qilsa qiyamat kuni yuzi on tort kunluk tolun aydek qopqay. Piri ustadlar aldida 'aziz mukarram bolgay. Risalani kunda bir marataba oqutsun. Bolmisa haftada yake bir ayda wa balke har yilda bir marataba oqusa kupaya bolgusidur. Allah [8a] ta'alla rahmat qilib gunahlarini magfirat qilib didariga sarf qilgay. Risala saqlagan kasibga y.g.d.r[?] har kisi ihanat [insult] qilsa darr(a) lazim bolur.
Should any craftsman not keep a manual, or not operate by a manual, then, on the Day of Reckoning, he will be disgraced and ashamed before the old masters. [7b] And if he keeps a manual and operates by a manual, on the Day of Reckoning, his face shall shine like the full moon on the fourteenth day of the month. He shall be beloved and respected before the old masters. One should make them read the manual once every day. Otherwise, reading it once every week, or every month, and maybe every year may be sufficient. God Most High [8a] will be merciful, forgive their sins, and look kindly upon their faces. If any y.g.d.r person should insult a craftsman who keeps the manual, he ought to be beaten.
Hadisniq mazmuni birlan: qal al-nabbi 'aliya al-salam al-kasibu hasbi allahu. Har kisi usbu hadisga munkir bolsa 'asi bolgusidur.
In the words of the hadith: "The craftsman is dear to Muhammad PBUH." If any person should deny this hadith, then he shall be a sinner.
Na'udu b-allah min al-dalik tamut.
May God protect us from that.
The Origin of the Craft
Commentary
Every manual includes a legend describing the bestowal of the basic knowledge of the craft on an Islamic prophet or saint. God sends the angel Jibra'il on some pretext with the message that the prophet, in this case Salih, shall learn the craft and pass it on to his community. The angel then creates and demonstrates the necessary tools. These legends can be quite fanciful and anachronistic with reference to sacred history: In this example, the prophet Salih passes on his knowledge to his apprentice, the prophet Yunus, who is meant to have lived much later. The two of them appeal to the prophet Dawud, who comes from a period between the two of theirs. I note that a contemporary redaction of al-Rabghuzi's Stories of the Prophets also held in the Jarring Collection is itself widely divergent from the oldest-known Khwarezmian version (Jarring 1980; al-Rabghuzi 1995), while its style and content are much closer that found in East Turkestani craft manuals. The manuals appear as part
of a legendary tradition that builds on the symbolic and narrative world of the Stories of the Prophets. The text in this manual is also peculiar in that it starts with a second opening similar to that at the beginning of the manual.
Text
[8b]
Bismi-llahi r-rahmani r-rahim. Al hamd 'l-lah rabb al-'alamin, wa-l-'aqibatu 'l-il-mutaqqiyuna, wa-l-salwatu wa al-salam 'ali rasula Muhammadin wa ala wa ashaba ijma'in.
In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Praise be to God, the Lord of the Worlds. And "the sequel is for those who keep their duty unto him" (Q 7:128). And peace and blessings be upon the great messenger Muhammad and on his family and companions.
Hazrat imam Ja'far Sadiq andag riwayat qilibdurlar kim: Muzeduzluq ahkamni huda-ye mutabarik wa ta'alla hazrat Salih paygambarga [9a] yarliqadi. Risalada andag kalturubdurlar kim: Bir kun hazrat Salih paygambar kafirlarniq jibr sitamidin gamnak bolub yiglab olturub idilar. Nagah hazrat Jibra'il al-salam kelib dedilar ke ay Salih nema gamnak bolursiz allah ta'alla eytadur qawmini imanga da'wat qilsun. Hazrat Salih paygambar edilar ya Jibra'il [9b] kafirlar eytadur seniq mu'jizeq qeni dedur. Sulzaman hazrat Jibra'il 'aliya al-salam gayib bolub kattilar. Tarfati 'l-'ayn icinda hazir bolub kaldilar wa bir para rahta bardilar. Madkur rahtaniq nuri 'alamni tuttilar. Hazrat Jibra'il korsatib bardilar. Hazrat Salih ayaglariga muze qilib kiydilar. Kafirlar korub ta'ajjubga qaldilar. [10a] hazrat Salih paygambar rast paygambar ikan! Ayagdin nur fayda bolubdur dab kafirlar musulman bolur erdi. Madkur rahtadin bir parca kiyib alur erdilar. Ertasi futun [putun] bolur erdilar. Lekin otuk kesarni bilmas erdilar. Qollari birlan bir biriga yamlab otuk [10b] otuk qilur erdilar.
The great Imam Ja'far Sadiq narrated: God the Beneficent and the Most High commanded the ordinances of cobbling to the great prophet Salih. In the manual, they have passed it down that: One day, the great prophet Salih grew sorrowful of the constraint and violent treatment of the infidels, and he was sitting and crying. Suddenly, the great Gabriel PBUH came and said, "Oh, Salih! How sorrowful you are! God Most High has said, 'He shall bring his people to the faith.'" The great prophet Salih said, "Oh, Gabriel! The infidels ask, 'Where are your miracles?'" At that moment, the great Gabriel PBUH suddenly disappeared. In the blink of an eye, he reappeared and gave Salih a piece of material. The light of that material lit up the world. The great Gabriel showed him how [to make boots]. The great Salih wore it as boots on his feet. The infidels saw them and were amazed. The great prophet Salih was a true prophet indeed! Because light appeared from his feet, the infidels became Muslims. They would take a piece from that cloth and wear it. The next day, it would be [a] complete [pair of boots]. But they did not know how to cut boots. They would use their hands to stick [pieces of material] together and make boots.
Bu hazrat Salih paygambarniq mu'jizelari erdilar. Har kafir korsalar be-ihtiyar musulman bolur erdi. Aniq ucun Salih atandilar. Asli namlari Zulya erdilar. Qacanikim[?] hazrat Salih paygambar muze qilib kiyar erdilar,
sahabalar alib kiyar erdilar. Ayaglarida muze hargiz tohtamas erdilar. Subu jahattin muzeduznig [11a] ayagida otuk tohtamas dabdur. Hazrat Salih paygambardin hazrat Yunus paygambar organdi. Andin mashur boldi.
These were the miracles of the great prophet Salih. When any infidel saw them, he or she would perforce become a believer. For this reason, he was named Salih. His original name was Zulya. Whenever the great prophet Salih made boots and wore them, his companions would take and wear them. They never lacked for boots on their feet. For this reason, it is said, cobblers [11a] are never without boots on their feet. The great prophet Yunus learned it from the great prophet Salih. Thereafter it became well-known.
Bir kun bir haramzada yalgandin iman kalturub madkur rahtani ogurlab katti. Hazrat Salih paygambar du'a qildi. Ul haramzadanig qolidin nafayda boldi. Hazrat Salih paygambar [11b] hazrat Yunus paygambar tola iltija' qildilar. Tapilmadi. Hazrat Jibra'il 'aliya al-salam kelib dedi ke ya Salih atqan oq hargiz yanmas. Dar hal hazrat Jibra'il 'aliya al-salam bir dana tera bardilar. Amdi ozig qilgil dedi. Hazrat Jibra'il korsatib bardi. Hazrat Salih rag bardilar. Kimsan boldi. Kimsan sazliq [12a] ruzi qiyamatgica yoq bolmas.
One day, a scoundrel finagled his way in and stole this cloth. The great prophet Salih prayed. It did not appear from the hands of the scoundrel. The great prophet Salih [11b] and the great prophet Yunus made great supplications. It was not found. The great Gabriel PBUH came and said, "Oh, Salih! The fired arrow never comes back." Immediately, the great Gabriel PBUH gave him a piece of leather. "Now do it yourself," he said. The great Gabriel showed him how. The great Salih dyed it. It became golden thread. This quality of this golden thread will never run out [12a] until Judgment Day.
Hazrat Salih paygambar otuk qilay deb idilar. Hargiz awwalqidak bolmadilar. Hazrat Salih munajat qildilar. Hazrat Jibra'il 'aliya al-salam daraht tubidin yapraq alib kelib bardilar. Hazrat Salih 'aliya al-salam bu yapraqga ohsa asbab qildilar.
The great prophet Salih intended to make some boots. They never turned out as they had before. The great Salih prayed to God. The great Gabriel PBUH took leaves from the trunk of a tree and brought them. The great Salih PBUH made tools that resembled these leaves.
Hazrat Dawud 'aliya al-salamga mutawajjih boldilar [12b] Gayibdin buranda fayda boladur. Hazrat Jibra'il 'aliya al-salam behastdin yigna ciqarub bardilar. Hazrat Salih paygambar[ga] korsatib bardilar. Hazrat Yunus paygambar[ga] tagdilar. Duzandaliq hazrat Yunus paygambardin qaldilar. Bir nacca muddatdin keyin zerakni har qildi.
They addressed the great Dawud PBUH. [12b] A cobbler's knife appeared out of nowhere. The great Gabriel PBUH brought a needle from Paradise and gave it to him. He showed the great prophet Salih how to use it. It came into the possession of the great prophet Yunus. Needlework comes from the great prophet Yunus. After a certain period of time, they began to push this clever one around.
Hazrat Salih paygambarnig gazablaridin [13a] kelib kimsanni barmadilar. Hazrat Yunus paygambar tola iltijah qildilar. Hazrat Salih paygambar dedilar
ke, ay Yunus bu menig mu'jizam erdilar. Har qildig. Amdi at eshaknig terasidin raht qilib otuk tik dedilar. Hazrat Yunus paygambar bir at alib soydilar. Dedilar ke, ay Salih qaysi tarafni qilsam bolur ikan? [13b] Salih dedilar ke, ay Yunus sagra tarafini rastlagil dedilar. Hazrat Yunus dar hal bija qildilar. Wa hazrat Salih paygambardin soramasalar hammasi sagra bolur erdilar. Hazrat Salih kimsandin namuna bardilar. Zarnica tikmak andin qaldi.
The great prophet Salih's indignation went into a rage and [13a] stopped giving them the golden thread. The great prophet Yunus pleaded with him a great deal. The great prophet Salih said, "Oh, Yunus! These were my miracles. You coveted them. Now make material out of the skin of horses and donkeys and sew boots." The great prophet Yunus got a horse and slaughtered it. He said, "Oh, Salih! Which side should I do?" [13b] Salih said, "Oh, Yunus! Prepare the hindquarters." The great Yunus did it immediately. And, when he asked the great prophet Salih, he said that everything should be from the hindquarters. The great Salih gave him an example from the golden thread. Inlaying with gold came from him.
Har kimersa muzaduz deb haqarat qilsalar, 'asi gunah-kar bolur. Hamma hunarlardin [14a] ulug tururlar. Har kasibnig oyida risala bolmasa yegani haramdur. Takbir eytmaqi aslan durust emas.
Whosoever takes the name of cobbling in vain, he will be a guilty sinner. It is greater than [14a] all the crafts. If in any craftsman's house there is not a manual, what he eats is forbidden. His recitation of takbir is under no circumstances correct.
The History of the Craft Community
Commentary
Most manuals also contain a second and more explicitly genealogical origin legend. This genealogy, which is at least partly imagined, integrates a variety of local and widely-known Sufi figures. For a complete discussion of the sacralization of the craft, see Dagyeli (2011: 71-93, 133-135, 157-182).
The legend then continues to the question-and-answer, or perhaps call-and-response, format seen above to outline the specific sacred origins of various skills and practices within the craft repertoire. Each action, such as stitching the seam of a boot, is attributed to a specific figures in sacred history. Most of the terms for these activities are part of a professional jargon internal to the craft community. Jarring (1991: 73-4, 81-85) has identified some of this terminology, and I draw on his work here as far as possible.
Text
Riwayat qilibdurlar kim Sufyan Thuri Rahmat 'l-lah 'aliya haramga barib ziyaratdin keyin yiglab turub erdilar. Hazrat haqq subhana wa ta'alla dar gahlaridin ikki dana mala'ik kelib, bu yil [14b] Bagdad saharidaki usta-ye 'Ali Muzaduznig hajjilarinig hasiyatdin hamma hajjilarnig hajjilari qabul bolgusidur. Sayh Thuri bu sozni isitib Bagdad sahariga barib ustadi 'alini tafib [tapib] tola tahaqquqlar sordilar ke, ay 'Ali haramga barganmusiz.
They tell the story that, one time, after Sufyan Thuri Rahmat 'l-lah PBUH had come back from making pilgrimage to Mecca, he was weeping. From the
presence of the Great Lord on High, two angels came and said that, this year, [14b] because of the specialness of the pilgrimage made by the master 'Ali the Cobbler in the city of Baghdad, all of the pilgrimages of all of the pilgrims would be accepted. When Shaykh Thüri heard these words, he went to the city of Baghdad, found the great master, and asked him over and over if it was true. He asked, "Oh, 'Ali, have you gone to Mecca?"
Üstä-ye 'Ali dedilär ke, bir kün [15a] bäzärga barsam, bir mullä bir kohna kitäbni tutub turadur. Satamsiz desäm, satarmän dedi. Qancägä bärursiz desäm, öziqiz däq, dedi. Män meniq täqgä bärdim. Su küni öydä risäla-ye madkürni oqutub piri üstädlar haqqidä du'ä qildim. [15b] Tüs kördüm: Hazrat Sälih paygambar dedilär ke, äy üstädi 'Ali, sän bizgä köp 'aqida qildiq. Bizlär saqa on miq täqgä bärdük. Sulzaman bidär bolub bi'däz [u] bämudäd tursam ikki yasäwul käldi. Fädisäh [pädisäh] cirläydur, dedi.
The Master 'Ali said, "One day, when I went to the market, there was a mullah holding an old book.
'Are you selling it?' I asked him.
'I'm selling it,' he said.
'How much do you want for it?' I asked, and he told me, 'Your choice.'
I gave him my money. That day, at home, I read this manual, and I prayed to the Old Masters. I had a dream: The great prophet Sälih said to me, 'Oh, Master 'Ali! You have had great faith in us. We have given you 10,000 tänggä!'
At that moment, I awoke. When I got up, two guards came. They said, 'The emperor calls upon you.'
Hazir sulsä'at bardim. Fädisäh [pädisäh], dididi, [16a] tüsi kör. Hazrat Sälih hudäniq yolida nazira qilgan hidänalarni üstä-ye 'Aligä beriq, dedi deb hazrat üstä-ye 'Aligä berib yandurdilar. Wä bu hadänalarni alib kelib öyde qoydum niyatim haramgä barisni tola hwählaydur [16b] deb sözni betamäm bayän qildi.
I went that very hour. The emperor said, 'Did you see? Give the treasures that the great Sälih received on the Path of God to Master 'Ali.' And so they gave them over to the great Master 'Ali. And I took these treasures and brought them home." Thus he narrated it completely.
Hazrat Sufyän Thüri yiglab hublasib be-taraf öz sähärigä rawän boldilar.
The great Sufyän Thüri wept. They said goodbye, and he and set off straightaway for his own city.
Ägär sorsalar kim müzadüzluqda näccä piri mursid ötübdur, al-jawäb: Awwal 'Abdurahman Adam safiyu 'l-läh turur. Ikkinci 'Abdalqahhär Nüh nubi 'l-läh turur. Ücünci 'Abdaljabbär Ibrähim halilu 'l-läh tururlar. [17a] Törtinci 'Abdal'aziz hazrat rasül 'l-läh tururlar.
If they ask how many Old Guides there have been in cobbling, the answer: The first was 'Abdurahman, Adam, the Purity of God. The second was 'Abdalqahhär, Nüh, the Word of God. The third was 'Abdaljabbär, Ibrähim, the Friend of God. The fourth was 'Abdal'aziz, the great Messenger of God.
Hazrat Adamdin tartib hazrat Muhammadgicä näccä piri mursidlar ötübdur? Säkkiz yüz altmis altä piri mursid ötübdurlar. Hämmäsi kämil mukammal tururlar. Sari'at, tariqat, haqiqatni ärasta qilibdurlar
How many Old Guides were there from the great Adam to the great Muhammad? There were 866 Old Guides. All were perfect and perfected. They equipped themselves with the Law, the Path, and the Truth.
Bulardin sogra on ikki piri ustadlar [17b] otubdurlar. Awwal hazrat Salih paygambar. Ikkinci hazrat Yunus paygambar. Ucunci Jalut. Tortinci piri Dihna. Basinci usta-ye Tusi. Altinci usta-ye Sami. Yattinci Hiyamdin. Sakkizinci hoja Baqi Sahi. Toqquzinci hoja Ilyas Sirazi. [Oninci] hoja Quddus. On birinci hoja Abu Talib Tasmani/Samani/Tamani. On ikkinci hoja Muhammad Yaradoza durlar.
After them, there were twelve Old Masters. The first was the great prophet Salih. The second was the great prophet Yunus. The third was Jalut. The fourth was Pir Dihna. The fifth was Master Tusi. The sixth was Master Shami. The seventh was Hiyamdin. The eighth was Khwaja Baqi Sahi. The ninth was Khwaja Ilyas Sirazi. The tenth was Khwaja Quddus. The eleventh was Khwaja Abu Talib Tamani. The twelfth was Khwaja Muhammad Yaradoza.
[18a] Agar sorsalar kim dukkandarliq kimdin qaldi, jawab: Hazrat Salih paygambardin qaldi. Rastkarlik kimdin qaldi? Hazrat Salihdin qaldi. Duzandalik kimdin qaldi? Hazrat Yunusdin qaldi. (Dirham)dozluq kimdin qaldi? Usta-ye Jalutdin qaldi. (Sagdaq)dozluq usta-ye (Perwis)[din] qaldi. Sarrajdozluq [18b] kimdin qaldi? Usta-ye Tusidin qaldi. Saqdozluq kimdin qaldi? Usta-ye Samidin qaldi. Paydozluq kimdin qaldi? Usta-ye Hisamidindin qaldi. Ilmadozluq kimdin qaldi? Hazrat Israfildin qaldi. Jubadozluq kimdin qaldi? Hazrat 'Azra'ildin qaldi. Yiqna Hurrdin turur. [19a] Fadra kuf hazrat Hizr Ilyasdin turur. Qayl-i boguz hazrat paygambar 'aliya al-salamdin turur. Tikna hazrat Idris paygambardin turur. Ismal tab hazrat Dawud paygambardin turur. Yif Hawwadin turur. Mom Adam paygambardin turur. Sag Isma'il paygambardin turur. Kopa Dawud paygambardin turur. Muza kardan Sulayman[19b]din turur. Muzaduzluqda yigirma tort paygambar dahil bolub otubdur.
[18a] If they ask from whom shopkeeping came, the answer is, it came from the great prophet Salih. From whom did shoe-polishing come? It came from the great Salih. From whom did needlework come? It came from the great Yunus. From whom did ... come? It came from the Master Jalut [Goliath]. Quiver-sewing came from the Master Parwesh. From whom did saddle-making [18b] come? It came from Master Tusi. From whom did the sewing of the front seam come? It came from Master Shami. From whom did making little shoes come? It came from the Master Hisamidin. From whom did embroidery come? It came from the great Israfil. From whom did lining with fur come? It came from the great 'Azra'il. Nails come from Hurr. [19a] Weaving reed mats comes from the great Khizr Ilyas. The speech of the throat is from the great Prophet PBUH. Needles come from the great prophet Idris. The twining hook comes from the great prophet Dawud. Thread comes from Hawwa [Eve]. Wax comes from the prophet Adam. The wooden wedge of the bootleg comes from the prophet Isma'il. Lambskin comes from the prophet Dawud. Making boots is from Sulayman. [19b] Twenty-four prophets have been included in cobbling.
Andaza huda-ye ta'alladin turur. Ustadi kim be-takbir sagirdiga indaza tohub barsa tariqatda murtadd turur. Pes tahtani behestdin alib ciqqan amurd yagacdin turur.
The pattern is from God. Whatever master makes and grants the pattern to his student without [reciting] the takbir will be an apostate from the community. He will be among the first and most swiftly expelled from paradise.
Daily Recitations
Commentary
The manual concludes by specifying which passages of the Qur'an are meant to be recited at different points in the working day. Recitations from the Qur'an are presented either in full and with vocalization to aid in pronunciation, while other phrases are indicated by their common abbreviations. A craftsman would presumably be familiar enough with the Qur'an to recognize and reproduce each passage. Contemporary prayer books, however, including one bound together with a rustic edition of the "Manual of the Camelleers" (Jarring Prov. 400), tend only to cite verses by name. Passages may be written out in the manuals because they are usually partial verses or blends of more than one verse on a common theme.
The verses found in manuals imbue the everyday with the experience and remembrance of the divine. A particularly fine example comes from the "Manual of the Druggists" (Jarring Prov. 7), in which a lengthy series of Qur'anic verses, if one reads them through Islamic exegetical literature, clearly refigure the working day as spiritual journey of drawing nearer to and retreating from God. Most of those passages recall a figure from Islamic sacred history, particularly Nuh, Musa, and Alexander, and relate their journeys towards, with, and away from God to the physical movements of the craftsman.
The "Manual of the Cobblers" presented here is rather simpler. The cobbler's working day is akin to a short text: It begins with the entry into the shop and an invocation of God through three common verses. This establishes the cobbler's shop as a sacred as well as a productive space. Two further actions are accompanied by specific verses, both of which are commonly used in Uyghur divination (A-pa-er et al., 385). The first, sitting on one's chair in the shop, corresponds to Q 2:255, one of the "throne" verses in the Qur'an. Q 2:255 is also an important verse in traditional Uyghur bibliomancy (A-p-er et al., 177). The verse brings to mind the power and ordering presence of God.
Next, the cobbler lays down the pattern to cut and shape the material while he recites a passage from Q 36, "Ya sin." This verse is commonly evoked in Uyghur malefactory magic (A-pa er et al., 385), as it refers to the resurrection of the dead in the final days following the first blast of a trumpet. The connection with the craftsman's action is analogous to the judgment of God: As the cobbler takes a dead thing, leather, and remakes it according to a final, absolute, and God-given pattern, so will God, after the second trumpet blast, punish and reward the dead. According to the craft manuals, not only, according to the oft-cited hadith, does God love the craftsman who acts
according to the correct path, God is himself a divine craftsman. "Yä sin" reminds the professional that all crafts precede from divine knowledge and reflect divine intent.
Finally, when the cobbler wets the material to make it more pliable, he is to recite a tasbih, a dhikr comprised of "Glory be to God," "Praise be to God," and "God is great." To this is appended a hawqala. Normally, a tasbih involves repetitions of these phrases. While other manuals often specify the exact number of times (martaba) that a phrase or prayer should be recited, this manual leaves out such specificities.
Text
Ägär sorsalar kim dukkänga kirärdä [20a] qaysi äyatni oqumaq keräk? Bism-illähi r-rahmäni r-rahim. Tawakkul 'ala (Alläh). Alläh. Wa 'ufawwidu 'amri 'ila Allähi 'inna 'l-läha basirun bi'l-'ibädi.
If one asks, when one enters the shop [20a], which verse must one recite? "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." "(And whosoever) putteth his trust in Allah, (He will suffice him)." (Q 65:3) "God." "... I confide my cause unto Allah. Lo! Allah is Seer of (His) slaves." (Q 40:44)
Kürsidä oltururda qaysi äyatni oqumaq keräk? Wasi'a kursiyuhu 's-samäwäti w'al- 'arda wa lä ya'uduhu hifzuhumä wa huwa 'l-'aliyu al-'azimu.
When one is about to sit on one's chair, which verse must one recite? "... His throne includeth the heavens and the earth, and He is never weary of preserving them. He is the Sublime, the Tremendous." (Q 2:255)
[20b] Andäza salurda qaysi äyatni oqumaq keräk? Qälü yä waylanä man ba'asanä min marqadinä hädä mä wa'ada 'r-rahmänu wa sadaqa al-mursalüna.
[20b] When one is about to set the pattern, which verse must one recite? "Crying: Woe upon us! Who hath raised us from our place of sleep? This is that which the Beneficent did promise, and the messengers spoke truth." (Q 36:52)
Rahtgä su pükärdä qaysi äyatni oqumaq keräk? Subhän Alläh, w'al-hamdu 'lläh, w'Allähu akbar. Lä hawla.
When one is about to spray water on material, which verse must one recite? Glory be to God. Praise be to God. God is great. "There is no initiative or capacity except from God."
Works Cited
1. Al-Rabghüzi, The Stories of the Prophets: Qisas al-Anbiyä', an Eastern Turkish Version, H.E. Boeschoten, M. van Damme, and S. Tezcan, eds., (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995).
2. A-pa-er A. D. Ao-mai-er and Liu Ming, Weiwuerzu Saman Wenhua Yicun Diaocha (Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, 2010), in Chinese.
3. Dagyeli J.E. "Gott liebt das Handwerk": Moral, Identität und religiöse Legitimierung in der mittelasiatischen Handwerks-risäla (Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 2011), in German.
4. DeWeese D. "The Descendants of Sayyid Ata and the Rank of Naqib" in JOAS 115:4 (October-December 1995), 612-634.
5. Hodgson M. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, vol. 1, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).
А.А. Белькова. Возвращение религии в публичное пространство Республики Бурятия (1990-2000-е гг.)___
6. Jarring G. "The Qisas ul-Anbiya" in Acta Regiae Societatis Humaniorum Litterarum Lundensis 74 (1980), 15-68.
7. Jarring G. "Garments from Top to Toe: Eastern Turki Texts Relating to Articles of Clothing, Edited with Translation, Notes, and Glossary," Scripta Minora Acta Regiae Societatis Humaniorum Litterarum Lundensis (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1991).
8. Qaraqutluq O.M. "Qashqarda Otkan Sahib Takbirlar" in Shinjang Tazkirichiliki 2006:1, in Uyghur.
9. Sukhareva O.A. "K Voprosu o Genezise Professional'nykh Kul'tov u Tadzhikov i Uzbekov" in Trudy Pamiati Mikhaila Stepanovicha Andreeva: Sbornik Statei po Istorii i Filologii Narodob Srednei Azii, Stalinabad: ANTS, 1960, pp. 195-207.
10. Sukhareva O.A. "Risala kak Istorichesnii Istochnik" in Istochnikovedenie i Tekstologiia Srednevekovogo Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka (1984), pp. 201-215.
Шлюссель Эрик - аспирант, Гарвард.
Schluessel Eric - Graduate Student, Harvard University.
УДК 2-67(571.54)
Б 44 © А.А. Белькова
ВОЗВРАЩЕНИЕ РЕЛИГИИ В ПУБЛИЧНОЕ ПРОСТРАНСТВО РЕСПУБЛИКИ БУРЯТИЯ (1990-2000-е гг.) *
*(Исследование выполнено при поддержке гранта Программы фундаментальных исследований № 33 Президиума РАН «Традиции и инновации в истории и культуре», Направление 2. Модернизация и ее влияние на российское общество, проект № 1 «Взаимодействие религиозных институтов и общин Бурятии в условиях социокультурной модернизации»)
В данной статье рассматривается как на протяжении 1990-2000-х гг. в Бурятии осуществлялся процесс возвращения религии в публичную сферу. Автор анализирует публикации в СМИ с количественной и качественной стороны, а также выявляет механизмы религиозной деприватизации. Ключевые слова: десекуляризация, публичная сфера, религия, Бурятия.
A.A. Belkova
THE RETURN OF RELIGION TO THE PUBLIC SPHERE OF THE BURYAT REPUBLIC (1990-2000)
The present paper discusses the process of the return of religion in the public sphere in the 1990-2000's. Buryatia. The author analyzes the publications in mass media from a quantitative and qualitative point of view and identify mechanisms of de-privatization of religion.
Keywords: desecularization, the public sphere, religion, Buryatia.
Изменение роли и статуса религии в современной России - тема, хорошо изученная как отечественными, так и зарубежными исследователями. Все они по-разному оценивают современные религиозные процессы:
