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be solved by employing discussions, interactive tasks, peer evaluation, encouraging students to introduce themselves at the beginning of the course to let the groupmates better know and understand one another, conducting synchronized "live" activities etc.
The experience of other countries in providing distant and hybrid courses should be further analysed with the aim of using its best practices in Ukrainian universities.
REFERENCES
1. Blankenship R. Undegraduate student online learning readiness / Blankenship R. Atkinson J. K. // International Journal of Education Research. - 2010. - Vol. 5. - Issue 2. - P. 44-54.
2. Caufild J. How to Design and Teach a Hybrid Course: Achieving Student-Centered Learning through Blended Classroom / Caufild J. - Sterling: Virginia, Stylus Publishing, LLC, 2011. - 266 p.
3. Dutton W. H. Digital academe: the new media and institution of higher education and learning / Dutton, W. H., Loader, B. - London: Routledge, 2002. - 182 p.
4. Fetzner M. What do unsuccessful on-line students want us to know / Fetzner M. // Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. - 2013. - Vol. 17. - Issue 1. - P. 13-27.
5. Harmon O. R. Testing the effect of hybrid lecture delivery on learning outcomes / Harmon O. R., Alpert W. T., Lambrinos J. // Journal of Online Learning & Teaching. 2014. - Vol. 10. - Issue 1. -P. 112-121.
6. Marks D. The Hybrid Course: Leaning into the 21st century / Marks D. // Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom. - 2013. - Vol. 5. - Issue 1. - P. 35-40.
7. Research Academy for University Learning. Montclair State University. http://www.montclair.edu/academy.
8. Shulman L. Signature Pedagogies in the disciplines / L. Shulman // Daedalus. -2005. - 134 (3). - P. 52-59.
9. Student Guide: becoming a successful online learner. Montclair State University. http://tti. montclair.edu/studentonline.
10.Technology Training and Integration. Montclair State University. http://tti.montclair.edu.
11.Xu D. Performance gaps between online and face-to-face courses: differences across types of students and academic subject areas / Xu D., Jaggars S. S. // Journal of Higher Education. - 2014. - Vol. 85. -Issue 5. - pp. 633-659.
УДК 37.013(438)"19"
А.-М. ЦВЕР
НАВЧАННЯ МОЛОД1 В ШКОЛАХ КАДЕТ1В II РЕЧ1 ПОСПОЛИТО1 (1918-1939)
Розглянуто систему пгдготовки втськових кадргв у корпусах кадетгв - «сучасних школах лицарства» у Польщ1 впродовж 1918-1939 рр. Кадетськ корпуси були добре органгзованими освгтнгми закладами, як здшснювали належну пгдготовку юнатв для подальшого навчання в офщерських середнгх школах. Вказано, що головна увага в них зверталася на формування в майбутшх офщергв Вшська Польського патрютизму, сильного характеру, стшко! волг, громадянськостг, дисциплти, моральних цгнностей. З'ясовано, що кадетськ корпуси реалгзували повну навчальну програму загальноосв1тньо1 школи, включаючи загальну втськову пгдготовку I ф1зичного виховання. Вони були важливою ланкою в цтснт системI освти I виховання майбуттх офщерських кадргв в II Реч1 Посполитт. Загалом у них формували зразок майбутшх г1дних кандидатгв на державну службу, в якш, безсумтвно, е постать професшного вшськового - людини активно'1, творчо'1, тдготовленог до активного життя I роботи в суспшьствI.
Ключовi слова: освгта, виховання, патрютизм, оборона, безпека, вшсько, суспшьство.
А.-М. ЦВЕР
ВОСПИТАНИЕ МОЛОДЕЖИ В КАДЕТСКИХ ШКОЛАХ II РЕЧИ
ПОСПОЛИТОЙ (1918-1939)
Рассмотрена система подготовки военных кадров в корпусах кадетов - «современных школах рыцарства» в Польше на протяжении 1918-1939 гг. Кадетские корпуса были хорошо организованными учебными заведениями, которые осуществляли необходимую подготовку юношей к последующей учебе в
офицерских средних школах. Указано, что главное внимание в них обращалось на формирование в будущих офицеров Войска Польского патриотизма, гражданственности, сильного характера и воли, дисциплины, нравственных ценностей. Отмечено, что в кадетских корпусах проходили полную учебную программу общеобразовательной школы, включая общую военную подготовку и физическое воспитание. Они были важным звеном в целостной системе образования и воспитания будущих офицерских кадров во II Речи Посполитой. В целом в них формировали образец будущих достойных кандидатов на государственную службу, в которой, безусловно, есть личность профессионального военного - человека активного, творческого, подготовленного к активной жизни и работы в обществе.
Ключевые слова: образование, воспитание, патриотизм, оборона, безопасность, войско, общество.
A.-M. CWER
THE EDUCATION OF YOUTH IN THE CADET CORPS IN THE SECOND
POLISH REPUBLIC (1918-1939)
There has been studied the system of military education in the cadet corps - "modern schools of chivalry" in Poland during 1918-1939. Cadet corps were well organized educational institutions that conducted proper training of young men for further studies in officer high schools. The article indicates that the main attention was paid to the formation of patriotism, strong character, sustained will, citizenship, discipline, and moral values in future officers of the Polish Army. It has been found out that cadet corps implemented a full comprehensive school curriculum, including general military training and physical education. They were an important link in the integrated system of education and training offuture officers in the Second Polish Republic. In general, they formed the pattern offuture worthy candidates for the civil service, which undoubtedly included a professional military figure - an active and creative person, prepared to lead dynamic life and work in society.
Keywords: education, training, patriotism, defense, security, the army, society.
The history of Polish statehood in the last 200 years has proved that military service has always been a symbol of moral and civic virtues, the symbol of high requirements and obligations towards own country. Military service, service to the country or to the society was associated with the highest moral values. Military uniform (knight's armour) was an expression of high sense of honour, dignity and exemplary citizenship.
Incidents of November 1918 brought Polish nation what it always dreamed of during 123 years of slavery - independence. Poland as a sovereign state became again a reality. Gaining full subjectivity of international law as a consequence of Versailles act final from 1919, Polish State has taken decisive steps in building its new reality.
One of very important problems of the young state was the establishment of an independent existence, security, Country's growth and the development prospects for the young generation. The specific international situation of the country (embittered relations on almost all boarders) meant that the external threat was real. Thus, it was obvious to have a strong army with efficient professional staff.
Prior to September 1939 Polish state and society expected to form the professional soldier with high moral virtues in addition to thorough knowledge and professional preparation. They constituted an important factor for stability and security of the country in the geopolitical circumstances of the interwar period. These virtues were incorporated into the education programs of military schools being formed, including cadet ones, constituting one of the basic foundations of preparing military personnel for the existing armed forces.
Bearing in mind the needs of the country and the army, taking into account the educational achievements of the first in the history of Polish military education institution professionally preparing commanding officers and civilian administration - Knight School (Cadet Corps) named by Stanislaw August Poniatowski in Warsaw (1795) [1] Ministry of Military Affairs (MSWojsk) in collaboration with the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Enlightenment (MWRiOP) decided to re-launch "modern schools of chivalry" - corps of cadets.
The beginning of the Cadet Corps No. 1 in Lobzów (in 1921 moved to Lviv) is dated December 1918, ten months later another school - Cadet Corps No. 2 in Modlin (moved in July 1926 to Chelmno) was established, and in 1925 the third facility of such kind situated in Rawicz (Cadet Corps No. 3) was opened [2]. Young people's education in cadet corps was a vital element in a coherent
system of education and upbringing of future members of the Polish Army of the Second Polish Republic. The profile of the future candidates for the honourable civil service which undoubtedly is the military duty and the officer in particular was shaped in those corps.
Those schools realized the full curriculum of secondary schools of general education including the extensive military training (multiplicity of the military topics) as well as carefully conducted classes of physical education
Cadet corps presented a compact view on the education of the future professional soldier. The intention of the promoters and founders of those schools [3] was to prepare properly young people for further education in the schools for officers (forming their predispositions to professional military service). In the process of the military education, which traditionally in the Polish system of education has many advantages, the passion for military service was formed, companionship and professional solidarity were developed and the sense of concern for image and appearance was shaped. On top of everything else, the discipline and commitment to Polish national and military traditions were encouraged.
The primary aim of the army was (and still is) to prepare the soldier for war therefore it was necessary to develop those elements of the soldier's spirit that are synonyms of victory on the battlefield. The combination and the harmony of the abovementioned education objectives resulted finally in soldier-citizenship profile arising from the most beautiful tradition of the Polish army, since Tadeusz Kosciuszko's Uprising (1794), across Jan Henryk D^browski's Legions (1797-1807), November insurrection (1831) and January Uprising (1863) until the cadets youth's present time
In order to continue the process of the young generation's education in the spirit of the mentioned tradition, crucial elements of the social and civil knowledge were included in the military education of interwar period. They were meant to stress the necessity of service, the need for training, acquiring knowledge and professional skills as well as real sacrifices of own life and toil for the Homeland.
Education in cadet corps was guided by the following motto: the young man enrolling to military school was for the first time in his life exposed to the idea of service for the country and the necessity to fulfil the first civic obligation. He submerged in the atmosphere of service and work for the country and for the social community. Starting his military service he at the same time began his duty towards the country. In the first place he learned to defend Homeland, and then through his service, he learned to increase its acquis? Based on those presumptions the concept of "state citizen" has a significant meaning. The cadet corps graduate knew it perfectly.
The process of education of young people in the cadet corps also assumed upbringing the man who is active, creative, prepared for active life and work in the community, in the country The man who is conscious of his goals and desires, prepared for his future duties, who is ready to execute his rights and is able to fulfil them and find himself needing this fulfilment [4]. In this process the element of civic and moral education was particularly taken into account. Military service, in which the young man was confronted with the obligation to be on his toes and give the utmost efforts to his Homeland contributed to the idea of the citizen providing the new meaning and right content. Bearing in mind the abovementioned the first step in cadet corps education was gradual introduction of the youth to the atmosphere in which soldiers lived and in which the army was preparing itself to fulfil the tasks assigned by the Homeland.
Following the guidelines set by Education - School Section III of General Staff of Ministry of Defence MSWojsk [5] it was sought to implement the existing military moral standards based on religious, patriotic and social elements supported by physical education, discipline and self-education. They constituted the base of military education.
Adolescence is a period most suitable for the formation of moral attitudes, respect for combat tradition and love for the homeland. Commanders and educators provided the youth with commonly accepted norms and rules of conduct. They aimed at the picture where the acceptance of the conveyed content results from the internal understanding and conviction of the correctness rather than from the fear of sanctions and social ostracism.
Particular emphasis in the process of youth's education was placed on those responsibilities that await a professional soldier in social life. The role of the school was to instil into cadets the understanding of major social responsibilities that lie on them as potential members of the officer corps obliging them to lead by example, be creative and generous in many areas of life. In the process of education it was stressed that professional soldiers, particularly officers prevailed in the society by
high sense of duty and strength of character. They were a part of society fusing their personal lives as well as their families with the life of the community.
Conveying moral standards to cadets was supported by humanities contents. They developed a love for language and national culture, formed sense of civic responsibility and fuelled love to the homeland. Emphasis laid on those virtues was not accidental, it resulted from the experience and it did not lose its current meaning. By nurturing and developing the patriotic feelings during the partitions (1795-1918) Poles did not allow its national identity to be lost. This way, after regaining independence, being surrounded by stronger states, they created a guarantee of preservation of national identity.
Religious education played an important role in the educational activities; therefore the process could have been characterized as religious and moral. Religious feelings were stimulated being based on love for God and as a consequence love for human being rather than on so-called fear of God. This was a source of genuine friendship and companionship. Religious education was not limited to the lectures, during sermons reference was made to, among others, examples of Polish history showing years of strong and powerful Republic of Poland. Fame of the Polish soldier was consistently reminded. While shaping patriotism, faith elements were wisely incorporated.
The cadets also got to know the literature of religious and moral contents. In corps, thanks to the efforts of school chaplains, there were small bookcases stocked with the current literature. On top of the pastoral work chaplains were responsible for shaping high morale among the cadets as well as raising them to loyal citizens, honestly fulfilling their obligations towards the country
Implementation of the artistic and technical subjects was of a considerable educational significance. Due to them the respect for the creators of national culture as well as public good was formed. Workshops and classrooms were jointly organized and equipped, tidiness and order were kept. The didactic aids for experiments were prepared as a response to own needs. Attention was drawn to the proper organization of work, unified speed of collective activities, its quality, precision, professionalism and efficiency.
Military authorities and MWPiOP paid a lot of attention to the readership. The school libraries offered titles of particular educational values. The preferred literature was the one cultivating the nation's heroic effort put in regaining freedom, independence, the literature promoting faith in own strengths, wisdom, enthusiasm for learning and working, which meant the highest form of patriotism. The ideal was a man diligent in work and social activities, attentive student and then soldier-citizen.
Shaping relevant features of a soldier-citizen was a ground for modelling the personality of the future professional soldier. To realize this goal some important factors played an important role: overall atmosphere of corps marked by seriousness, creative learning, work, appropriate interpersonal relationships between staff, supervisors and alumni, tact, understanding and also high quality after-school activities an in addition sports and tourism.
Two-way relationship of the teacher and the student in the cadet corps meant close mutual collaboration and cooperation, maximal mutual connectivity, limitation of the existing distance which often separates students from the teacher, and at the same time gaining trust of the young men while maintaining an appropriate seriousness and authority.
Didactic teaching staff enjoyed undisputed genuine respect among the students, not just formal associated with the position held or the function performed. Kindness, cheerfulness and freedom, forbearance without indulgence and above all the desire and willingness to get to know and understand the student - were the specific virtues of cadet corps teaching staff, that was trying to associate with
young people as frequently as possible and at each possible occasion [.....] being scapegoats and
social-minded and grounding their efforts on explicit ideological convictions [6]. Teachers, commanders and tutors were convinced that encouraging great feelings could not be done only by means of external forms but also should origin from the internal examples, authority and the spiritual life existing in schools Personality of the teacher, supervisor set an example, a model for the students. Hence, the view of the teaching staff and cadet corps commanders that the future of the nation is being cultivated by the example set by the tutors [7] seems justifiable. It should be emphasized that the pupil of cadet corps due to the boarding nature of those schools was taken care of for 24 hours a day by the tutors, so the influence of the staff on the development of his personality traits was significant Personality of cadets was shaped by use of a full range of educational methods namely by creating the
sense of responsibility and awareness of own conduct and its assessment while keeping the maximum permissible level of freedom. Self-education played a leading role in this process. It consisted of extracurricular life, which was built on the principle of school self-government under the discreet supervision of the corps authorities
Students spent their free time in their own scientific, entertainment, sports, artistic or civic organizations where among others they learned how to spent time effectively. Having the opportunity to pursue individual interests, talents, and at the same time learning and solving own issues independently, cadets were preparing themselves for future civic activities. The school was filling time of the students completely.
In the process of soldier-citizen profile forming military and national celebrations was widely used. The particular day, celebrated very solemnly, was corps day. Preparation for that event lasted several days, including among other things, a series of talks on the history and tradition of the school. The celebration was combined with religious ceremonies, bugle call (festive evening march) and tribute paid to the cadets killed in the Polish-Bolshevik war (1920) and in the third Silesian Uprising (1921). Special attention was paid to the proper spirit and the seriousness of the moment. The wide participation of regional society in which the school was located was guaranteed.
School's celebrations were closely linked with the specific kind of cult for the school's flag, a symbol of honour and dignity. It had a tremendous educational value. It was a symbol of loyalty towards the country, soldier's honour, courage and glory of combat. Regulations being in force since the eighteenth century dictated to guard the flag in each situation, even if soldiers' lives were in danger. It was treated with respect and venerated and due military honours were given.
Military traditions were cultivated in beautiful and lavish forms of customs and military ceremonies. One of them was handing in weapons - referring to the ritual of knighting. This custom, as the most sacred oath of fidelity to the heritage of weapons, has preserved in different forms until today. By this act the conviction was instilled that the sword given by the nation to its knighthood, is the one wielded by the strong arm of the powerful spiritual man. This sword is not a privilege but a sign of human values, equivalent of the obligation to give life serving the Homeland and God [8].
It is worth noting the existence of memory rooms in the cadet corps was arranged with particular care. Apart from the souvenirs from the period of fights during the Polish-Bolshevik war, third Silesian Uprising, prizes won in various competitions and contests, exhibits depicting the tradition of struggle for independence in the region, where the corps were located, were also gathered in the memory rooms. Those chambers were a very important part of the educational process of cadets presenting the history, the current day and the school's achievements.
The selection of national heroes as patrons of school's facilities such as libraries or recreation rooms was treated as the form of the education. Dining rooms, classrooms, hallways were decorated with reproductions of paintings showing the most beautiful moments of the Polish army (e.g. paintings by Jan Matejko, Wojciech Kossak, Arthur Grottger and Jan Styka).
The national emblem decorated the main wall of the recreation rooms, classrooms and the cadets' bedrooms. The cadets' and national flags, national hymn - symbolizing the sovereignty of the country - were venerated and treated with respect, love and affection to school's youths.
Tradition and customs had a material impact on the overall cadets life with defined audience -military youth, they formed their moral backbone. These included matters of honour, social life, most important official and private events. They were an integral part of most aspects of cadets' everyday life and an important element of cadets so called esprit de corps. This spiritual bond is one of the most precious moral virtues of the army - the professional leadership of the Second Republic.
In the 20-year interwar period the military heritage and traditions were the foundation of the patriotic education of youth. They were also directly reflected in the general education programs. Forming and strengthening the links with military and national traditions were visible in the whole educational system of young people, both in military schools as well as civilian ones.
Graduating cadets were leaving schools with the adequate general knowledge, military training, physical fitness, moral strength as well as the faith in the future, optimism, joy of life which can only characterize the man with clear and real life goals. The man who, while realizing his goals, was guided by the words of Jozef Poniatowski [9] addressed to his subordinates: Courage! Try hard so that the name of Poland sounds great [10].
In corps cadets were taught that in order to command it was not enough to want it. One needs to have an extensive and in-depth knowledge. Be a specialist - be fluent in military craft to the extend higher that the subordinates. Nothing else undermines the faith in supervisors more than their ignorance and lack of subject knowledge experienced by the subordinates. Effective orders can be given only in the atmosphere of mutual trust. This applies to all levels of the command starting from the lowest one - military team (squad). Therefore the first requisite for the future good commander was professional profound knowledge adequate to the position occupied. The second one was the personality, strength of the character and will as well as the individual self-discipline, deep love for the Homeland, strong sense of serious but at the same time noble responsibility and the honour for military service Those virtues were instilled in the young cadets.
Polish cadets' corps were the place, where the noble professional "caste" was built. It stood out from the social mass not only by external distinctions and privileges but foremost by its spiritual and moral profile conscious of own goals and mission
Conclusions. Presenting the achievements of Polish cadets corps, their experiences and successes in youth's education is not only an attempt to present some of the important parts of the Polish history but also has a deeper meaning.
During their twenty years of existence cadets corps became the leading educational institutions not only in the army but also in the whole country. They played a significant role in the development of the military and pedagogical ideas. The educational programs of cadet corps incorporated ample legacy of the past years, actual needs as well as the achievements of contemporary pedagogy. Due to the high level of education and perfectly organized after-school activities they gained wide popularity and recognition among broad masses of the Polish society.
I believe that the highest value to the educational traditions of the Polish Army during the Second Republic had the patriotic and civic education of soldiers (including young cadets). National pride and many virtues formed those days corresponding to the idea of the soldier-civilian education proved successful in the tragic incidents of September 1939 and in many battles of Polish soldiers on the fronts of the World War II.
Although the Polish cadet corps ended their glorious activities over seventy years ago many of the educational initiatives developed in cadet corps are reflected in present educational system not only limited to the military one.
Cadets corps tradition of the interwar period is cultivated by all contemporary Polish military schools and centres of the military education - they are an important educational element of Polish young people wearing military uniforms.
REFERENCES
1. A. Cwer: Edukacja mlodziezy w Szkole Rycerskiej Stanislawa Augusta Poniatowskiego 1764 - 1795. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach Siedlce 2011 (R. II), tenze: Wolanie o szkoly rycersk^. w Rzeczypospolitej, [w:] Przegl^d Historyczno-Oswiatowy 2007, nr 3; Volumina Legum, Przedruk zbioru pism staraniem XX Pijarow w Warszawie. T. VII. Petersburg 1859 - 1860, s. 204.
2. Akty powolania szkol kadeckich przez Ministerstwo Spraw Wojskowych (MSWojsk.): Dziennik Rozkazow MSWojsk. 1918, nr 13, poz. 488; 1919, nr 86, poz. 3019; 1925, nr 25, poz. 268; zob. tez: A. Cwer: Polskie szkoly kadeckie w latach 1918 - 1939. Monografia. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach. Siedlce 2012, s. 55.
3. Or^downikami idei szkol kadeckich byli m.in gen. Jan Jacyna i Jan Latour - zob. A. Cwer: Polskie szkoly kadeckie , op. cit., s. 59.
4. Korpus Kadetow Nr 2 w X rocznic? istnienia 1919/20-1929/30. Red. S. Jura. Druk Bydgoska S. A. Bydgoszcz. Chelmno 1930, s. 182.
5. III Oddzial MSWojsk. odpowiadal za szkolnictwo wojskowe w tym szkoly kadeckie.
6. W. Galecki: Organizacja szkoly, [w:] Encyklopedia wychowania. Red. S. Lempicki, W. Gottlieb, B. Suchodolski, J. Wlodarski. T. 3. Wydawnictwo „Nasza Ksi?garnia" Zwi^zku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. Warszawa 1934, s. 206.
7. M. Kreutz: Osobowosc nauczyciela-wychowawcy, [w:] Encyklopedia wychowania, op. cit., s. 291-292.
8. Polskie Korpusy Kadetow. Wyd. Towarzystwa Przyjaciol Polskich Korpusow Kadetow. Warszawa 1923, s. 58 (kadeci otrzymywali bron w drugim roku pobytu w korpusie).
9. Poniatowski Jozef (1763 - 1818): polski general, minister wojny i wodz naczelny Wojsk Polskich Ksi^stwa Warszawskiego, marszalek Francji - zob. Sz. Askenazy: Ksi^z? Jozef Poniatowski 1763-1813. Wydawnictwo Kurpisz i S-ka. Poznan 2006.
10. Polskie Korpusy, op. cit., s. 62.
