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СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ ТТАУЧНЫЙ
СЕРИЯ «ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ
И ПРИКЛАДНОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ»
Tamara V. Khvesko
UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS
Abstract
The author conducts a comparative analysis of British, Russian and American onyms from the point of view of the theory of language structuring levels concerning concepts of linguistic cognitive speaker creativity. The article covers trends in the development of onyms system, the correlation of onyms (place names, personal names, nicknames) and appellatives, universal and ethnic features of Indo-European onyms. The toponyms demonstrate not only perception of reality and what-you-see or what you-feel, but help the speaker to create desired virtual names. Specific features of onyms are considered in complex with mental cognition and cultural impact.
Key words: onym, apellative, ethnic, universal, culture, place names, nicknames, Personal names.
INTRODUCTION
Onomastics is a science about any kinds of onyms: place names, personal names, nicknames etc., its features, functions and development. Linguistic aspect of onomastics includes historical, geographical, ethno-cultural and sociological problems, which help to reveal universal and specific features of onyms. It allows to consider onomastics an applied auton-
omous discipline, which observes the aspects of cultural heritage of society, particularly manifested in the names.
The aim of the article is to show universal and ethno-specific features of native and borrowed onyms in Slovenic and Germanic languages. Onyms response to the sociological changes is immediate so they can serve as chronological units. Due to the onyms conservatism they save ancient elements of the language being an informational source, interpretation of which may be realized by linguistic methods. All the variety of things, real or manmade, is the primary basis of appellatives (summarising analogous facts) and on-yms (identifying definite objects among the others ). Place names, their functioning, meaning and origin, structure and the area of distribution, historical development and changes in diachrony are described in the works of J.M. Cassagne, M. Korsak [1, 2]. The correlation of ap-pellative/onym (toponym, personal name and nickname) in various kinds of communication causes understanding that globalization is the basis of the universal names appearance. The traditions of names giving are specific for each culture, e.g. the system of (sur)names in England appeared in the XI century and is closely connected with the history of the country: personal names and nicknames, place of birth and living, lands owning, family relations and labour [3]. Special attention is
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Y ТАУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА
J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES
OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS
paid to the process of creativeness of on-yms forming, which causes not only the image of nicknames but the expression of communicator self-realization as well [4]. Artificial nomination (nicknames) is an important factor of intercultural communication. Globalisation presents a unique opportunity for the productive antrop-onymic system forming. Internet communication effects not only perception of reality but helps to create desired virtuality names. Individual creative features of names giving is considered in complex with mental cognition and cultural effect [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Specific features of network
discourse (anonymity, distance, immediate, minimum of charge for actions, non-verbal means of communication) cause the speaker create virtual language names, different from real ones.
Intercorrelation of languages in the conditions of ethnic contacts initiates territorial universal formations, which participate in onomastic word compositions. Much attention is paid to singling out the universal and dialect features of on-yms. Scientists try to reconstruct archaic forms of apellatives of Indo-European languages [10, 11, 12].
Table 1
Indo-European roots in modern British Place names
№ Indo- European roots Graphical variants British place names
1 Aber -ber -bar Aberford, Berwick, Barmouth
2 Abh -awn -own -aub - alm Awn, Owenweg, Aubwee, Almond
3 Avon -eva -ive -anne - inney Avonmore, Evan, Ive, Anne, Inney
4 All -aul -ell -lu Moyallan, Derraulin, Alan, Ellen, Lune
5 Ald -alt -allt Alltan, Garvald, Altaggart, Burn, Old Walter of Cluden
6 Ar -arw -air Aire, Arre, Arrow
7 Ard Auchter, Ardmore, Ardrossan
8 Beann -berg -bar -borough Bengore, Bannagh, Ben Nevis, Berwyn, Barglass, Ingleborough
9 Beh -belth -bedw Behagh, Kilbaha, Dalbeattie, Penbeddw
10 Bel -bell -ball Belfast, Belleek, Ballyshannon, Belcoo
11 Borg -bury -brough -barrow Conisbrough, Glastonbury, Kingsbury, Irthlingborough
12 Boil -bottle -battle -boot Newbottle, Newbattle, Bootle
13 Brugh -bru -bry brough Bruree, Bruce, Bryan, Bruff, Brough
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СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ ТТАУЧНЫЙ
СЕРИЯ «ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ
И ПРИКЛАДНОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ»
14 Bryn -birn -brain Brandon, Brinton, Birnwood
15 By -byr -here -bear Aylesbere, Beer Alston, Beardon, Bearhaven, Whitby, Duncansbay
16 Burn -bru -bro Bruton, Brockworth, Broxbourne, Kilburn
17 Caer -car -cath Caernarvon, Carlile, Carstairs, Carn, Carnedd, Carnlea, Carron, Cairntoul, Careg (cerrig), Carrigafoyle, Craigavad
18 Caol -kyle -killy Caolispot ,Killisport, Kyles of Bute
19 Ceann -can -ken Cannafahy, Kanturk, Kinsale, Kenbane, Kenmare, Kintyre, Kent, Kencot
20 Cluain -clon -clin Clinycracken, Clane, Cloncaird, Clunes, Clonmel
21 Glen -glan -glin -glean Glenamaddy, Glandine, Glin
22 Col -com -cum -clon Colne, Lincoln, Cloncorick, Compton, Cummeen
23 Craebh -creev -crev Derrycreevy, Crevagh, Auchencruive, Comcravie
24 Crols -croch -croes Crossby, Crouch End, Crossmaglen
25 Dair -dar -der -dern -dir Daar, Derinish, Adare, Darrach, Edendarrock, Deer, Londonderry, Dernagree, Dirrie More, Derry
26 Deas -ass -des -dis Ratass, Deskart, Diskir
27 Dol -dale -dal Deloraine, Kendal, Arundel
28 Dubh -duf -dool -dow -dul Carrickduff, Doolough, Douglas, Deelish, Clashnamonadee, Dulas, Dowlas, Diggles
29 Dun -don Shandon, Dundrum, London, Dunstable
30 Eadar -adder -edder -mead -main Craigadder, Edenagh, Dunadry, Eddrachillis Edderton, Meadhon, Inishmaan, Kilmaine
31 Es Eas -esk -usk -exe -axe -ass -sa -as -esso Thames, Ash, Ouse, Wach, Ease Doonass, Ballysadare, Askeaton, Feteresso, Easdale
32 Ey -ay -y Lambay, Dalkey, Ireland‘s Eye, Lundy, Walney
33 Field -fjeld -fell Dryfield, Scafell, Fallowfield, Huddersfield
34 Fiord -ford Wexford, Carlingford, Oxford
35 Garn -gart -gaard -garry Garryowen, Ballingarry, Garran, Garranamahagh, Ballygarrane
36 Glas(s) Glaslough, Kilmaglush, Glashaboy, Douglas, Glasnevin
37 Grian -green Grianan, Greenane, Clogrennan, Greenoge
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ТТАУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА
J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES
OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS
38 Ham -am -ym -ome Hampstead, Hampton
39 Kil - kirk Kildare, kilmeny, St. Kilda
40 Lann - lion -lam Lampeter, Lamlash
41 Mark -merk -mar Marbury, Merkbury, March, Marchmont
42 Muir -mur -mor -mare -more Connemara, Kenmare, Murree, Glamorgan, Morecambe, Murvagh, Murrey, Kulmurvey
Universals are observed in Germanic languages: place/palace, poll/pool, scoll /school, strath/street, tri/three, thorpe/ trop. The most popular components are still used in modern languages [13]. Their analysis allows to find out adstrate formants, close in meaning to modern English elements; substrate formants, which have no correlation in modern English, but are widely used in Germanic languages; superstrate formants, ancient borrowings, having correlations in Indo-European languages saved in old Slovenic languages [14, 15].
So the study of onomastics of any region includes ethno-geographical, historical and cultural, as well as linguistic aspects. Toponymic universals studies have become important in recent years concerning cognitive approach to the research of the linguistic units, which allows to show the speaker’s individuality manifested in the morphological process of hybridization in the Russian language.
METHODS
Place-name is a universal phenomenon in Indo-European languages. Linguistic creativeness as a manifestation of the speaker’s individuality is observed in hybrid formings. Creative features of toponyms appear at definite levels of lin-
guistic analysis: morphonological, lexical, semantic and structural. Here we try to show the morphological processes which take place in the original and borrowed Russian and British topographical onyms in diachrony [16, 17].
The following morphological processes take place in British place-names: hybridization, e.g.: Silverstone ^ Sewulfs + ton; Yelverton ^ Ella's+ ford + ton; Glamorgan ^ glan + more + geni; God-manchester ^ Lat.Godmund+cestre; reduction: Fotheringhay ^ forth + here + ing + eg; Grantchester ^ Grant + set; GlenAffric^ glen + a + the + break; doublication: Torpenhow Hill ^ tor + pen + how + Hill; adaptation: Conis-brough; Glastonbury; Gold’s + pie (E) ^ by (ON ). Such modifications as stone ^ ton, borough ^ burg, chester ^ set cause the loss of primary meaning and appearance of naive folk interpretation of the new form, e.g. Brownsea Island ^ Brunkeseye, where the final component E eye ^ OE ieg. Folk interpretation of Brownsee is considered: brown + sea.
The following morphological processes take place in Russian place names: reduction: Semivragi, Prechistenka, Suk-hodol, Sivtsev Vrajek, Kholmogory, Ki-tai-gorod, Spas-zaulki, zamoskvorechie, Novgorod; adaptation: Pinega, Onega,
32 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ ТТАУЧНЫЙ
СЕРИЯ «ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ
И ПРИКЛАДНОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ»
Ladoga, Vetluga, Sviyaga, Volga, Vi-chegda, Vologda, Nerekhta; rotation: final component ga/da (means water) is observed in the North while in the centre of Russia va/ma: Neva, Sosva, Narva, Proshva, Kama, Chukhloma, Kostroma, Bogulma, Yakhloma; hybridization: Belozero, Churozero, Ustozero, Orenburg, Omsk, Tomsk.
The typological investigations of the languages show that morphological and lexical dynamics is characteristic for Russian onyms while structural changes prevail in English onyms. Semantic transformations (conversions) are observed in the system of onyms as well, where secondary nomination units are the products of cognitive dynamics.
Universal features of British place names
Though the systematic description of place names in Germanic written sources appeared 600 years earlier than in Slo-venic, there are common features in both languages [18]. Comparative analysis of Indo-European roots shows that changes in toponymic units are mainly caused by the morphological dynamics. Many old place names have undergone some degree of reduction in the long period since they were first coined. Place-names form very large and diverse groups of onyms, representing description of some topographical objects either natural or manmade, which were later transferred to the settlement, probably at a very early date, e.g. Bourton-in-the-Water; Bourton-up-on-Trent; Bourton-in-the-Hill; Black Bourton; Burton Constable; Clayton-le Moors; Clayton-le-Dale; Clayton-le-Wools; object quality: Bradwell-on-Sea, Belcoo; Cromarty; Hugh Town; Kyle of Lochalsh; Langholm; Huntington; Leeds
Castle; Gidea Park; Chidwell; historical occasions: Brentwood (burnt wood); Fo-theringhay (forth + here + ing + hay); Barnstaple, Dunstaple (staple); Brittas Bay (briotas); Beaconsfield, Dunkery Beacon, Brecon Beacons.
The names for rivers and streams, springs and lakes, fords and roads, marshes and moots, hills and valleys, woods and clearings, and various other landscape features are also the names of inhabited places: Sherborne, Fulbrook, Bakewell, Tranmere, Oxford, Brea-more, Stodmarsh, Swindon, Goodwood, Bromsgrove, Bexley, and Hatfield - all have second elements that denote topographical features.
The glossaries provide a selection of meanings found for some of these topographical elements and give an idea of the great range and variety of this vocabulary. From the structural point of view, most English place-names are compounds, that is they consist of two elements, the first of which usually qualifies the second. The first element in such compounds may be a noun, an adjective, a river-name, a personal name, or a tribal name. Typical examples of compound place-names formed during the Old English period are: Daventry, Coventry, Oswestry (Da-fa's tree, Cofa’s tree), dar/der: Derwent, Daren’t, Dart, Darly, Darvel (celtic: der-uenta ^ dar/der); beith (Gaelic: beither ^ E birch): Dalbeattie; ash: Knotty Ash, Bramhall, Bramton, Bromley, Broms-grove, Bromyard; Juniper Green, Crey-don, Beeston, Farnham, Glastonbury.
However some place names consist of one element only, at least to begin with: examples include names like Combe (’the valley’), Hale, Lea, Stoke, Stowe, Thorpe, Worth, and Wyke. Less common are the
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ТТАУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА
J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES
OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS
names consisting of three elements such as Claverton (burdock ford farmstead), Redmarley, Woodmansterne, and Woth-erton; in most of these the third element has probably been added later to an already existing compound.
Ethno-cultural features of American and British Place names
The sociological function of onym as a cognitive presentation of reality is observed in place names which reveal some general classes: those embodying personal names, chiefly the surnames of pioneers or national heroes; those transferred from other and older places, either in the eastern states or in Europe; Indian, Dutch, Spanish, French, German and Scandinavian names; Biblical and mythological names; names descriptive of localities; and names suggested by the local flora, fauna or geology [19]. The names of the first class are perhaps the most numerous. Some consist of surnames standing alone, as Washington, Cleveland, Bismarck, Lafayette, Taylor and Randolph; others are contrived of given names, either alone or in combination, as Louisville, St. Paul, Elizabeth, Johnstown, Charlotte, Williamsburg and Marysville. The number of towns in the United States bearing women’s given names is enormous. Most of these places are small, but there is an Elizabeth with 75,000 population, an Elmira with 40,000, and an Augusta with nearly 45,000. Some place names are very matter-of-fact about natural surroundings: Twin Lakes (in six states), Three Lakes (in two states) and even Mosquito Lake (just in Alaska). Dinosaur, Colorado also falls into this what-you-see-is-what-you-get category. Sometimes American place names draw on natural features that are not merely seen with the eyes, but are also
perceived by the nose and the tongue. Maybe the well water tasted like diluted candy (Sweetwater). Maybe something in the air smelled like rotten eggs (White Suphur Springs) [20].
It is interesting to note that Americans have named many towns after tastes they prefer in their diets. Americans are obviously inspired by sugar and salt, but have little regard for spiciness. There is only one Spiceland in Indiana. Salt tops sugar in popularity, especially if you count towns named Saline or Salineville (six of them) or Salinas (just one in California.) Cities that were named after people also tend to be unimaginatively named. There should have been a limit on the number Smithfields and Smithlands allowed. There are numerous cities with names that advertise their supposed wealth in coal, lumber, wheat, corn, raisins and prunes, e.g. towns named Enterprise and the much rarer towns named Success. There are plenty of place names that seem eager to flaunt wealth and status.
The comparative analysis of place names in the UK and USA shows the features of linguistic creativeness of its forms. In the UK there are kinds of place names composition, one of the most frequent being the use of the medial connective particle -ing in Paddington, probably best explained as estate associated with a man called Padda [5]. Some compound place-names in the western parts of England (especially in Cornwall, Wales, and Cumbria) have a different formation. They are so-called name-phrases in which the usual order of elements is reversed following Celtic practice: Aspatria (’Patricks ash-tree’), Bewaldeth, Brigsteer, Landulph, and Tremaine. The names with this characteristic Celtic word-order are also pre-
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СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ ТТАУЧНЫЙ
СЕРИЯ «ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКОЙ J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ
И ПРИКЛАДНОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ»
dominant throughout Ireland, Wales and much of Scotland [21].
The meanings of topographical terms can vary a good deal from name to name, for some elements used over a long period in the formation of English place-names underwent considerable changes of meaning during medieval times: Old English feld originally ’open land’ developed a later sense ’enclosed plot’, Old English wald ’forest’ came to mean ’open upland’, and Old English leah ’wood’ became ’woodland clearing’ and then ’meadow’, Godmaer’s ^ Gomers, Grimesthorpe, Grimston [13].
The choice of the most likely meaning for one of these elements in an individual name is therefore a matter of judgement, based among other things on locality, the nature of the compound, and assumptions about the age of the name. Moreover recent research has increasingly shown that what seem to be similar terms for hills or valleys, woodland or marshland, or agricultural land had fine distinctions of meaning in early times. Different Old English terms for ’hill’ like dun, hyll, hrycg, hoh, heafod, and ofer are far from being synonymous, seem to have had their own specialized meanings. In addition these and other common topographical elements like eg (island), hamm (enclosure), and halh (nook) were each capable of a wide range of extended meanings according to date, region, and the character of the landscape itself [21].
CONCLUSION
The correlation of place names, personal names and nicknames is observed in various kinds of communication. The tradition of names giving is specific for each culture. The system of (sur)names in England appeared in the XI century and is closely connected with the history
of the country: personal names and nicknames, place of birth and living, lands owning, family relations and labour. Cognitive mechanisms determine the form of the names. The process of creativeness of onyms forming causes not only the image of the name but expresses the communicator self-realization as well.
The comparative analysis of British, Russian and American onyms made with the help of the theory of language structuring levels concerning concepts of linguistic cognitive speech creativity is important. Onyms (names, place names, nicknames) play an important role in the process of communication. Globalisation presents a unique opportunity for universal features of onyms appearance. Currently new trends of onyms system development are observed with the expansion of the Internet communication. The names show not only perception of reality and what-you-see or what-you-feel, but help to create desired virtual names. Comparative analysis of Russian and British onyms from the structural point of view shows linguistic creativeness of speech patterns. Specific features of onyms are considered in complex with mental cognition and cultural effect. Ethno-cultural features of onyms are manifested in such morphological processes as reduction, duplication, hybridization and adaptation.
References:
1. Cassagne J., Korsak Le noms de lieux du Tarn. Editions sud Quest. M., 2008. pp. 300-319.
2. Cresswell J. Dictionary of First Names. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers. 2009. pp. 418-468.
3. Mencken H.L. The American Language. Bibliography. Surnames and Given Names. N. Y., 1921. pp. 1156-1180.
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Y ТАУЧНЫЙ РАЗДЕЛ I. МЕТОДОЛОГИЯ СИСТЕМНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЯЗЫКА
J. J. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Tamara V. Khvesko. UNIVERSAL AND ETHNIC FEATURES
OF INDO-EUROPEAN ONYMS
4. Delahunty A. Oxford Dictionary of Nicknames. Oxford University Press. 2006. pp. 223-229.
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10. Frolov N.K. Ethnic Names Avtoch-tons of Tyumen Oblast Area in Language Cognition. Literature and Culture in Recent Human Knowledge. Tyumen: Tyumen State University, 2005. pp. 243-270.
11. Pospelov Е. M. Russian Place Names. Moscow: Astrel, 2008. pp. 140303.
12. Mills D. Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford University Press, 2004. pp. 17-54.
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14. Golomidova M.V. Artificial Nomination in Toponyms: abstract of PhD Thesis. Sverdlovsk, 1987. pp. 7-20.
15. Mullonen I.I. Toponyms of Pris-virya (The Problems of Ethno-linguisti-cal Contacts): PhD Thesis. Petrozavodsk,
2000. pp. 8-17.
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Institute of Geography. Moscow: Nauka,
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17. Oforidaev N. Linguistic Research of Oikonyms of Gorniy Badakhshan: abstract of PhD thesis. Dushanbe, 2002.
pp. 11-27.
18. Khvesko T.V. Common Features of Russian and British Place Names. International Journal of Experimental Education, issue 12, 2013. pp. 76-77.
19. Khvesko T.V. Socionym as a Cognitive Presentation of Reality. European Academy of Natural History Journal, issue 5, 2012. pp. 66-67.
20. Lakoff G. Embodied Mind, Embodied Philosophy. University of Glasgo,
2001. pp. 12-17.
21. Hanks P., Hodges F., Mills A.D., Room A. The Oxford Names Companion: The Definite Guide to Surnames, Names and Place Names of the British Isles. Oxford University Press. 2002. pp. 898-904.
СВЕДЕНИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ:
ХВЕСЬКО
Тамара Владимировна
доктор филологических наук, профессор Тюменский Государственный Университет 625003 Россия, Тюмень, ул. Ленина, 16, Россия E-mail: khvesko@inbox.ru
DATA ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
Tamara V. Khvesko
PhD in Philology, Professor Tyumen State University 10 Lenin St., Tyumen, 625003, Russia E-mail: khvesko@inbox.ru
