CC BY
12HISTORICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
UNDERSTANDING THE PLACE OF CATALONIA AND CATALANS IN WORLD HISTORY IN THE
LIGHT OF HISTORICAL CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS IN THE LIGHT OF THE CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN AND MUSLIM WORLDS
Ashrafyan K.,
postgraduate student of the Department of Archaeology, History of the Ancient World and History of the
Middle Ages, Faculty of History, Political Science and Law Moscow State Regional University (Moscow, Russian Federation)
Peña Angel Pascual Managers of the Museum of the Sea of the Ebro La Rapita, Catalunia, Spain DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7148243
Abstract
In this article, the stages of development of the Catalan nation are considered in chronological order. The author derives a clear framework, each of which leads to changes in culture, linguistic change, and a change in the territorial boundaries of influence, which eventually lead to the definition of the concept of Catalonia and the Catalans.
Purpose
The article is aimed at studying the historical heritage of Catalonia to understand the formation of Catalan self-consciousness as a phenomenon in the process of world history.
Time frame: prehistory - XIII century
Geographical scope: the territory of Catalonia, the territories of France and Spain.
Keywords: Catalonia, Spain, Tubal, Catalunya, Catalonia, Old Catalonia, New Catalonia, Medieval chronicles, Hercules, Catalans, Catalans, Pyrenees, self-determination of Catalonia, borders of Catalonia, history of Catalonia, genesis of Catalonia, falsification of chronicles, Iberian culture, Sordones, Indigetes, Layetanos, Cosetanos and Ilercavones, Ausetanos, Bergistanos and Lacetanos, Iberians, Celtiberians, Duke Borrel, Al-Andalus, House of Barcelona, Spanish Stamp, County of Catalonia, Girona, Bagnoles, Ullastret, Turdetan letter, Bastulo-Turdetan letter, Tarragona, Tarraco, La Rapita, Almanzor Borrel Ile de France - Capeting Hugo, homage, de homenaje), Berenger dynasty, Berenguer Ramón, Berenguer, Dulce de Provence, Al-Andalus, Maria Montpellier, Counts of Barcelona, Alfonso II, Ramiro II, Occitan language, Provencal language, Cathars, Albigenses, Albi, Crusade against the Cathars, Amalric, King Aragon Peter I, Almoravid clan, Simon de Montfort, Harraf, Llobregat, Cardener, Monsec, Valle del Cinca, Marca Hispanica, Mosarabs, Muladi, Gotolania, kingdom of taifas, taifas, taifa, parias, tributo, pariare.
Introduction
From prehistory to the III century BC.
The myth of the origin of people in Iberia.
The first settler of the Iberian Peninsula according to the myths and legends of Spain, was Túbal, who was the son of Ham (Cam) and the grandson of Noah (Noé) [10, p.15].
In the XVI century, the Italian «Annio de Viterbo» falsified the chronicles («crónicas antiguas»), which confirmed the beginning of the Pyrenean people from Tubal and the further kinship of all the kings of Catalonia with the Greek Hercules [2].
The science of the origin of people in Catalonia.
450,000 years ago in the Paleolithic era, the territory of Catalonia was inhabited by "Homo erectus" [1], whose remains were discovered in a cave in the city of Talteull (in modern Northern Catalonia) [1; 10, p.25]
85,000 years ago, Neanderthals appeared on the territory of Catalonia.
25,000 years ago, the remains of Homo sapiens were found on the Iberian Peninsula. His remains were found in the city of Bagnoles (Girona) [1; 10]
6,000 years BC in the Neolithic era in the territory of Catalonia was developed animal husbandry and agriculture. People became semi-nomadic and sedentary, there were ceramics and megaliths-dolmens. The most
important Neolithic monuments in Catalonia are the Cave of Fontmayor (Espluga de Francoli), the caves of Gran and Freda (Montserrat), the cave of Toll (Mora) (Fig. 15).
From 1,800 BC it was time for the Bronze Age and Catalonia also entered this era.
In 1.200 BC there was an arrival of Indo-European peoples who spread throughout Europe. These new settlers brought with them a few cultural changes. In the Catalan lands there were a few villages with a pro-Turkish structure, such as Geno, in the region of Segria, or Mussara, in the region of the camp of Baiz [10, p.25].
From 1,000AC, settlements with central streets and walls appeared in the west of Catalonia. These tribes ("protoestados") soon evolved.
Catalonia was influenced from three sides:
A) from the Pyrenees mountains comes the influence of those peoples who had experience in the extraction and processing of metals.
B) by sea on the coast of Catalonia come Phoenicians from Lebanon and settle in the south of Iberia, as well as in Ibiza, they bring with them the secrets of iron processing, as well as the cultivation of grapes and the production of wine, oil, organize the extraction of salt. The Phoenicians had a positive impact on the cultural
development of the Iberian peoples from the VIII century BC;
C) the phocoena founded the settlement of Emporium, which means "market", from where Ampurias comes from, as well as the toponym Ampurdán.
In the V - III century BC. e. the Greeks founded the colony of Rhode, which meant "roses".
In the III century BC. e. the city of Roode, was destroyed by German invasions, as a result of which the site was completely uninhabited and abandoned until the beginning of archaeological excavations in 1908 [10, p.25].
Stage I of the development of Catalonia. Creation of Iberian society.
What was the Iberian community?
The Iberian community is a mixture of local and incoming cultures. This is the only way to understand the Iberian culture of the Mediterranean (Iberia Mediterránea), which stretched from Andalucíato Ródano.
Catalan history says that theIberians did not come from invading tribes in North Africa or Europe. Although it claims that there was a great variety of Iberian peoples on the peninsula, and that these groups have common characteristics related to the level of technological development and some artistic and cultural manifestations [10, p.26;].
Tribes of Iberians inhabiting the lands of Catalonia.
If you look at the coast of Catalonia from north to south, you can name such tribes of Iberians as the Sor-dons, Indigetes, Layetanos, Cosetanos and Ilercavons, Ausetanos, Bergistanos and Lacetanos, which occupied the central region, then - Mientras, the Ilergets stretched through the region of Poniente, and ayrenosinos, and seretanosinos and seretanos inhabited the valleys of the Pyrenees.
Periods of development of Iberian culture
From the VIII century BC. e. until the VII century. BC there are contacts with colonizing peoples who own the secrets of iron making.
VII century BC to V century. BC is the ancient period, when in Catalonia there is a consolidation of peoples and Hibernization of the population.
Mid. V century BC up to III century BC is the time of maximum development of the Iberian culture itself.
In 218, the landing of the Romans BC brought an end to the Iberian culture (Fig. 16).
The birth of the hierarchy of society.
The most important changes occurred in the VI century BC, when a class of chiefs and warriors began to be born in the tribes. At the same time, large and heavily fortified settlements were created.
Alphabet and writing. Variants of writing.
1. The Paleo-Spanish script, or Iberia script, was based on a system of 28 characters that are known to be read but whose meaning has not been deciphered, in part because of scant written evidence. Among the most important archaeological sites of the Iberian villages is Ullastret (Girona).
2. The Greco-Iberian script, based on the Ionian alphabet, also existed at the same time.
3. The Turdetan script (from right to left) dating back to this time was also found at the same time on the
Iberian peninsula and existed and is considered a variant of the ancient Libyan.
Writing was divided into two major branches:
Southern (inscriptions mainly in and Iberian languages); obsolete names are Turdetan, Bastulo-Turdetan script.
Northern (inscriptions from left to right in Iberian)
[2].
II stage of development of Catalonia. III century BC Rome and Carthage as catalysts for the history of Catalonia.
The Second Punic War lasted from 219 BC to 201 BC. It was this event that generated the entire further history of Catalonia.
Foundation of Cartagena
The Carthaginians passed through the Iberian Peninsula, where they created Cartago Nova (modern Cartagena).
In 225 BC, the Carthaginians signed the Treaty of Ebro with Rome, according to which the Ebro River demarcated the spheres of influence of both powers.
The beginning of the Second Punic War.
218 BC. In late April or early May [9]. Hannibal marched from New Carthage. At the head of the army, formed of 59,000 people, in which there were both Carthaginians and residents of the Iberian Peninsula.
Iberian and Carthage.
The Iberians, who lived between the Ebro and the Pyrenees and on the territory of present-day Castel-Roussillon [4] were able to unite and assemble a united army consisting of the tribes of the Ilergetes, Bergusi-ans, Avsetans, Andosinians and Erenosians [11]. This army came forward to meet Hannibal in Ruscinon. Since the main goal was to strike at the Roman legions, Hannibal did not stand up to enter a confrontation but met and generously gifted the leaders. Immediately the Carthaginians received permission from the Unchrane-ans. Pass by Ruscinon through the Pyrenees through The Segre (or Cerdagne) and then through the Perche Pass and the Theta Valley. They then followed the Provence River and passed through the Alps to land in Italy.
Hannibal left 10,000 foot and 1,000 horsemen led by Gannon in present-now Catalonia, and many warriors were disbanded from their homes [4].
218 BC. Founding of Tarraco (Tarragona)
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio landed with two legions, which amounted to 20,000 soldiers in the Greek city of Emporion (Ruines d'Empuries), which was an ally of the Romans and was located near the city of Girona (Fig.1).
Scipio made alliances with the coastal Iberian peoples and founded a new base in this place - Tarraco (modern Tarragona), which was destined to become the capital of Roman Spain (Fig. 1).
The performance of the Iberian tribe of the Ilergets against Rome.
Against the Romans was the tribe of the Ilergets, who had previously concluded an agreement with Hannibal.
Tribe of Ilergetes (los ilergetes).
The city of Lleida (now Lleida, standing 100 km from Tarragona) [13] , was the capital of the Iberian
tribe of the Ilergetes. The leaders of the Ilergetes were King Indibil and his brother Mandonio. who allied with the Carthaginians against the Romans.
In 215 BC, the Battle of Ebro took place, where Asdrúbal Barca, Hannibal's brother and commander of the Carthaginian army, was defeated by the Romans1.
209 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio conquered Carthage Nova [10, p.27], then Gadir and in 206 BC Cádiz fell.
In 207-206 BC, the Romans suppressed the revolt of the Ilergets. King Indybilo of the Ilergets was killed in battle, and his brother, Mandonio, was executed.
A monument to both is erected in Catalonia in Lleida (Рис. 2).
As soon as the territory of modern Catalonia was conquered, the war between Rome and Carthage spread to other peninsular spaces.
In 195 BC, Marcus Porcius Cato, known for his irreconcilable beliefs towards the opponents of Rome and especially to Carthage (the phrase he always used to the place and not to the place has been preserved: "Carthage must be destroyed!") suppressed the revolt of the tribes of the Ilergets, Lachetan and Ausetanos (Ausescos).
Romanization of Catalonia
As the Catalans themselves write during the next 700 years, the territory of Catalonia was in the orbit of Rome [1; 5; 13]. So, seven centuries of Roman rule (Pax Romana) changed both the territory and its inhabitants. It was a process of Romanization.
Relations with local peoples.
The Romans quite clearly divided the living peoples with whom they encountered: the allied peoples retained their rights, while the conquered were forced to pay heavy taxes.
Changes in the composition of the population of Catalonia.
In the territories not occupied by local residents, numerous Roman veterans settled - columns, who used the widespread labor of slaves. Along with traditional Iberian houses (Fig.3), Roman villas quickly appeared (Fig.4) And settlements that were expanded. The creation of many settlements, retired legionnaires in Spain and Catalonia, led to the rapid erasure of borders with the settlements of local residents and contributed to the mixing of peoples, through the adoption by local peoples of more advanced Roman technologies. Along with the construction of aqueducts (Fig.5), new materials for the cultivation of land (Fig. 6), intensive trade came the adoption of life principles, faith, and everything else, associated with Rome.
Economic change in the territories of Catalonia.
The most important changes became possible after the laying of roads.
The Road of Augusta (Via Augusta), which connected Rome and led to the southern city at the tip of the Iberian Peninsula - the city of Cadiz. This road crossed the territory of Catalonia along about the same route as the current Mediterranean highway (Fig.7).
The road is partially preserved, and its remains can be found throughout Europe (Fig.8).
Construction of aqueducts.
Roman aqueducts changed the entire water supply system and changed the geography of settlements. Numerous aqueducts (Fig.5), bridges, farm and urban buildings of the Roman period are located throughout Catalonia and (the number of finds is growing every year (Fig.9)) all this directly influenced the fact that the locals quickly rebuilt their way of life and adopted the culture, beliefs, language of the Romans.
The basis of the economy of Catalonia.
Catalonia specialized in a Mediterranean trilogy based on cultivation,
• wheat
• vine
• olives
New cities.
Rome also created a powerful network of cities, among which stood out Barcino and, above all, Tar-raco, which became the capital of the entire province. The city reached a population of 30,000 people and had important public buildings, as well as an amphitheater, theater, and circus (Fig.17, 18). Romanization led to important cultural changes.
Construction of numerous dams.
The maritime communications of the colonies with Rome through our sea (Mare Nostrum) were also strengthened by the construction of dams.
The Change of Religion and the Adoption of Christianity in Catalonia in the III Century AC.
The adoption of economic changes led to a mixture of the population and affected the adoption of the religious beliefs of the Romans by the local population.
It must be said that Jews began to move to Barcelona after the complete destruction of Jerusalem and the burning of the main Jewish shrine in 70 AC., by the Roman Titus Flavius Vespasian - the future emperor of Rome, after which Jews were forbidden to settle in Jerusalem (Fig.20).
Therefore, in the territory of Catalonia, as well as throughout the Roman Empire, Christianity also spread, so in Catalonia there are also saints who died for the Christian faith. For example, in 259 AC, the Christian bishops Fructuoso of Tarraco (Fructuoso de Tarragona, o san Fructuoso) and deacon Augurio (Augurio de Tarragona o San Augurio) and Eulogio (Eulogio de Tarragona, o San Eulogio) were burned in the amphitheater of the provincial capital - Tarraco (Tarragona).
In the III century AC. there were already Christian cores in the city of Tarraco and in other cities.
In 313 AC, Emperor Constantine prophesied the Edict of Milan, which established religious freedom and allowed Christian worship.
In 380 AC, Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion of the empire.
Language change in Catalonia.
The linguistic difference is in the origins of the language of the Catalans and the Spaniards.
1 https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asdr%C3%BAbal_Barca
The Catalan-speaking lands, as early and deeply Romanized areas, use a language that derives from vulgar Latin, that is, from the Latin spoken by the folk classes. This links the roots of the Catalan language to the Gallic languages, not to the Spanish-speakers, which arose from the cultural Latin spoken by foreign officials.
It was the ease of use of vulgar Latin that finally removed the language barrier and contributed to the disappearance of existing Iberian languages, which is why Catalan is considered a Romance language, and is also included in the group of other Romance languages - such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, etc. [10, p. 28].
Suffice it to say that today - most of the words in Spanish are taken from Latin.
The final Romanization of the peoples of Catalonia and the emergence of the Ibero-Romance people.
In 212 AC, the "last nail" was hammered into the distinction between the local population and Roman citizens. This was the command of the emperor Caracal, who granted Roman citizenship to all the individual freedoms of the Empire. Now the last line between the Roman settlers and the local population was erased (Рис. 18).
III stage of formation of Catalan self-identification. Goths and Ibero-Romanesque population.
In 409 AC the Alans, Vandals and Swabians crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the Iberian Peninsula.
411 AC in the Visigoths entered the territory of Catalonia, pursuing the above peoples.
Merger of the Roman ruling classes and the Visigoth nobility.
In 410 AC the Visigoths captured and plundered the imperial capital of Tarraco.
The leader of the Visigoths - Alarico, kidnapped Princess Gala Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodo-sius and half-sister of Emperor Honorius.
In 414 AC there was a merger of the Roman ruling classes and the Visigoth nobility, when by the king Ataúlfo, Alaric's successor married Gala Placidiin the city of Narbonne. The same king placed his capital in Barcino, a walled city, and in 415 AC completely expelled the Alans and Vandals-Silings from Betica.
On August 14, 415 AC, king of the Visigoths Ataúlfo was assassinated at the Royal Palace of Barcelona in a conspiracy involving some of his closest nobles.
And in 418 AC, the king of the Visigoths Valia entered the lands of Alans, destroying the bulk of the population with kings and nobles in Lusitania (modern Portugal) and Carthage (the central part of the Iberian Peninsula), for which the Visigoths received from Rome the lands of Aquitaine and Septimanie, which lay on the borders of present-day Catalonia.
In 475 AC king proclaimed the complete independence of the Visigoth kingdom from the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire [8].
In the second half of the 500s, the Visigoths gradually annexed the entire Iberian Peninsula to their possessions [7]. But the Visigoths occupied only the most important strongholds before the war with the Franks. They were Tarragona, Seville and Merida. As the
Frankish threat grew, more and more Visigoths began to move from Gaul to Iberia.
In 526 AC, Barcelona again became the capital of Visigoth monarchy at the beginning of the VI century, they founded their capital in Barcelona.
The rights of the Goths and the Ibero-Romans in Catalonia in the VI -VII centuries AC.
In 578-586 AC, that is, during the reign of the Visigoth king Leovigild, the code of Visigoth laws was revised and the ban on marriages between Romans and Goths was abolished, the special position of the Goths in court was eliminated.
During the formation of the Kingdom of Toledo, a hundred thousand Visigoth people moved and settled in most of Spain, where their cultural integration with the local population and tribes took place (Fig.19).
To fragment the kingdom and gain royal power, a certain viceroy (comit) of the city of Nîmes, whose name was Ilderic, led a revolt in Septimania (southern France) and received the support of the bishop of Montpellier - Gumild and abbot Ranimir [6].
The Visigoth king Wamba (or Vambus) sent an army led by the nobleman and general Paul to Gaul to suppress the rebellious people. However, Paul himself joined the rebels and subsequently led a movement aimed at liberating Catalonia and Septimania from the rule of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo, declaring himself "King of the East" - the ruler of the eastern regions of Visigoth Spain. King Vambus, learning of this, gathered a large army and suppressed the uprising: Girona, Barcelona and other cities surrendered to him. Thus, the Visigoths suppressed attempts to break up the kingdom [6].
Religion in Catalonia. Transition from Arian-ism to Catholicism from IV to VII centuries.
By the time they crossed the Alps and came to Catalonia, they were already partially Romanized. They practiced Arianism, which was a variant of Christianity, which was condemned as heresy at the Council of Nicaea (325 AC).
In 589 AC, most of the Spanish-Roman population converted to Christianity.
The first known documents in the Catalan language.
In 643 AC, the first legal code of laws (lex iudi-corum) was published, and in 654 a single law was written - Liber IudicumIt became the first text of the laws written in Catalan language.
In 703, the Eighteenth Council of Toledo supported and approved all the decisions of the Council of Trullo. Thus, the Kingdom of the Visigoths confirmed its commitment to Orthodoxy.
Soon after the conquest of almost all of Spain by the Muslims, king Fruel I of Asturias, actually sided with the Roman Catholic Church.
IV stage. Catalonia as a "buffer zone" between the Muslim world and the Western Empire of Charlemagne.
Muslims in the land of Catalonia.
In 632 AC, the Prophet Muhammad died. After his death, the Arab world began a very rapid military expansion.
711 AC. A group of Arabs and Berbers entered Andalusia and then spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. In Tarragona, where Muslims gained resistance, there was a high level of destruction with catastrophic long-term consequences.
In 720 AC, Muslims arrived in Narbonne (present-day France), then in Septimania and in the lands of Gaul.
The secret of the success of the Islamization of Catalonia.
Muslims replaced the Visigoth tax system and established a different principle of tax collection, which consisted of a personal tax on infidels (who did not accept Islam) and territorial. This circumstance forced many to abandon Christianity and convert to Islam to avoid at least one of the taxes. Moreover, the population was able to preserve its language, religion, and customs, but not without restrictions. Many Goths and Ibero-Romans changed religion for economic reasons, about which there are many documents.
Creation of the Muslim Caliphate of Al-Anda-
lus.
Initially, Al-Andalus became part of the Omayyad Caliphate with its capital in Damascus, which stretched to India. It was under the slogan of the return of Al-Andalus that the terrorist acts were committed in 2017 by Arab extremists in Barcelona on the Rambla.
Ruler Abasi moved the capital to Baghdad.
Creation of the Emirate of Córdoba.
The year is 756 AC. Omayyad Abd al-Rahman moved to Al-Andalus and created the politically independent emirate of Córdoba.
The creation of Catalonia as the border ("buffer zone") of security between the Christian and Muslim worlds.
Catalonia was far from the central authority of the Caliphate of Córdoba, so this circumstance favored the emergence of movements conducive to the rupture of relations with the emirate. Continuous uprisings and struggle against the various emirs of Córdoba provoked a situation of instability, which the Franks successfully took advantage [10, p.31].
In 732 AC, the Muslim conquest of Europe was halted by the Franks at the Battle of Poitiers [1; 10; 13].
In 759 AC, the Franks, under Charles' leadership, dominated Narbonne and soon controlled all Septima-nia.
768-814 AC. The reign of Charlemagne marked the beginning of the political and military restoration of Christendom, as well as its cultural Revival.
The year is 778 AC. The Frankish expedition against the Muslims ended in a crushing defeat in Ron-cesvalles (Navarre).
From that moment, the creation of Catalonia began as a place for a "buffer zone" of security between the Christian and Muslim worlds.
The interest of the Frankish monarchs in creating a secure border within the Iberian Peninsula persisted. It is the land of Catalonia that would serve as a barrier against the emirate of Cordoba, the powerful enemy of the Franks in the south.
In 785 AC, the population of Girona, a strategic and well-defended fortress, handed over the city to the Frankish army.
In 789 - four years later, the inhabitants of Cherdyn, Alt-Urgel (Al-Urgel), Pallars and the Ribar-goses (Alta Ribagorsa) also handed over their cities to the Franks.
800 AC. Pope Leo III in Rome at Christmas Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) was proclaimed Emperor of the Western Empire.
In 801, Frankish troops besieged Barcelona, where they were able to penetrate on April 3, recapturing it from the emir.
With the conquest of Barcelona, the territory was delimited, which the European chronicles of that time called the "Spanish Mark" (Marca Hispanica), which became the border of Christianity in Spain. Barcelona itself became the capital of the "Marca Hispanica".
Formation of the County of Catalonia
The Frankish monarchs divided the territory into ACministrative units called counties (Condados). These were the counties of Roussillon, Ampurias, Per-alada, Girona, Osona, Barcelona, Cerdaña, Urgel, Pallars and Ribagorza. Theowners of these lands gave it to peasant families.
Birth of the "House of Barcelona" (La casa de Barcelona).
From 870 AC Wilfred the Hairy (Gifredo el Velloso) was named Duke of Urgel, Cerdaña and Conflent.
In 877 AC, King Charles the Bald of the Frankish Empire dies.
878 AC Wilfred the Hairy was proclaimed Duke of Barcelona and Girona, uniting under his person most of the lands and vassals of Catalonia [10, c.32].
In 879 AC, the sons of Wilfred the Hairy proclaimed themselves heirs, without waiting for the approval of the court. Wilfredo II headed the counties of Barcelona, Girona and Osona, while his brothers Miró and Sunifredo proclaimed themselves counts, respectively, of Cerdaña and Urgel. This is what gave birth to «House of Barcelona».
Throughout the tenth century in Catalonia, five hereditary district houses and the House of Barcelóna were united, and the House of Barcelo was name as «Main House» among other Houses (primum inter pares): House of Palliars-Ribagorza, House of Urgel, House of Cerdaña-Besalo and House of Ampurias-Roussillon.
V stage. The rupture of the County of Catalonia with France in the X century AC and the acquisition of a new history of the County of Catalonia and its further connection with the crown of Aragon in the XIII century.
In the X century AC there were changes in Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula
In 929 AC, Abd al-Rahman III, was proclaimed caliph, that is, a descendant of the prophet and the first religious authority of Islam and the Caliphate of Córdoba began its run and existed from 929AC to 1031 AD.
Events in the Western Empire of the Frankish state.
Frankish state - the Western Empire of Charlemagne after his death collapsed and Catalonia was ruled by Charles the Bald along with the possessions of Aquitaine, Bretagne, Burgundy, Flanders, Gascony, Septimania, Toulouse. This shard was called the West Frankish Kingdom.
At the same time, the German nation took a dominant position in the Frankish Empire and the reign of first Henry I from 919-936 AD, and then Otto I the Great from 936 AC to 973 AC came. who started a war with the Slavs and with other peoples.
On 2 February 962 AC, Otto I (Otto the Great) was crowned and anointed as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and ruled until 973 AC, giving his son Otto II his title and power [12].
King Lothar, who ruled the West Frankish kingdom from 954 AC to 986 AC, was from the Carolin-gian dynasty, and after his death the Capetian ascended the throne (fr. Capétiens).
After 987, the West Frankish kingdom became known as France, as the Capetian were dukes of Île-de-France.
In this confrontation, all views in the opposing camps were directed in the other direction from the Pyrenees, protected by the Spanish Mark from Muslims.
Violation of the vassal pact and non-recognition of the Capetians.
At the end of the century, Duke Borrell II, who ruled from 944 AC to 992 AC, realized the precarious-ness of the Frankish monarchy, established direct diplomacy with the increasingly powerful Caliphate of Córdoba. This was possible as a result of the fact that in the Western Empire there was a struggle for investiture, in which the entrenched German princes challenged the title of Emperor of the Western Empire.
However, the weakness of the border with Christians was also understood by Muslim rulers, who had enough information about this as a result of the established direct trade relations between Barcelona and the Muslim world.
From 976 AC, Vizier Almanzor (Almanzor, Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir) began a harsh policy of raiding the Christian kingdoms of the north of the peninsula.
In 985 AC, it was Catalonia's turn. Barcelona was looted and burned, and most of the country was destroyed [1; 10; 13]. At the same time, in 985 AC, Bor-rell II turned for help to the Frankish monarch, who never arrived. From the count's point of view, this violated the vassal pact.
In 986 AC, neither Borrell II nor his successors renewed their oath of allegiance after the death of King Lothar. And in 986 AC, the first king of the dynasty of the dukes of Île-de-France Capetian Hugh I was proclaimed, whom Duke Borrell II did not recognize.
In 987 AC, the West Frankish kingdom became known as France, as the Capetian were dukes of Ile-de-France.
Thus, after 987 in the history of Catalonia came a new stage of historical development, which was characterized by the rupture of vassal ties with the Franks and France, and the beginning of the actual independence of the Catalan lands [13, p.32].
New Social Institute of Management of Catalonia.
(«My vassal's vassal is not my vassal»)
The new social and political reality, characterized by fragmentation of power, was to be institutionalized through vassal bonds. In a ceremony called the homage (de homenaje) [15], the earl ceded the title of lord to a nobleman, swore allegiance to him, and was obliged to render military assistance. The same thing happened between nobles and castle owners, thereby expanding the feudal pyramid in writing (Liber Feudorum Maior).
The nobleman became the owner of the lordship and, as such, responsible for the administration of justice in his territory in a complete, permanent and hereditary manner.
In Catalonia, the nobles who exercised state power in the territory on behalf of the counts proclaimed themselves lords of the lands and vassals, whom they guarded the nobleman Penedés Mir Geribert, who proclaimed himself Prince of Olerdola and was finally defeated by the Duke of Barcelona (1040-1059).
The Berenguer Dynasty (House of Berenguer Ramón) and the conquest of Catalonia by Christians.
In 1067 AC and 1070 AC, Duke Ramon Ber-enguer I bought estates on Carcassonne and La Rasa.
In 1112 AC, Ramon Berenguer III (Berenguer Ramón) married Dulce de Provence and extended the possessions of the House of Barcelona to Provence, Mihaut, Gévaudan to other territories. This economic acquisition of territories north of the Pyrenees also meant peaceful expansion through Provence and the Occitan lands, among which the city of Carcassonne stood out (Fig.10).
The reasons for the success of the expansion of the borders of Catalonia in the XII century.
In the XII century, important events occurred, which caused precisely those reasons that allowed the discontent of Christians with Muslim rule to break out and expanded the lands of Catalonia
In the Muslim part of Iberia - in Al-Andalus there was a period of instability, when moments of political fragmentation alternated with the creation of kingdoms of independent taifas (kingdoms of taifas) and associations under the rule of new peoples who arrived from Africa (Fig. 21).
The most important point of this was the introduction of high taxes by the new Islamic states (Parias His-pania)., known as the Taif kingdoms. These taxes allowed the Muslim typhoon states of Lleida and Tortosa to survive and were paid to the Christian kingdoms as payback from their attack. But soon it was time for the Almoravid clan to dominate Al-Andalus from 1099, which united the lands under Islamic rule. And in 1147 the Almohad clan came to power (Fig. 22, 23).
High taxes on the local population and the instability of the Muslim world, endless confrontations between taifas and clans led to a change in relations between Christians and Muslims and gave impetus to the Christian conquest of Catalonia.
In the XII century AC, under the command of Ramón Beregover III (Berenguer Ramón), the conquest of Catalonia gained a great impetus, placing the borders of the peninsula as far as the region of Murcia.
In 1204 AC Peter I married Marie Montpellier.
Occitanic also became the land of the lords, but without the king.
The Counts of Barcelona will soon also become kings of Aragon.
At the end of the twentieth century and during the eleventh century, the nobility succeeded in privatizing state power and putting an end to peasant property and freedom.
Catalonia and Aragon. The end of dependence on France.
King Ramiro II of Aragon in 1137 AC, in gratitude for his support, gave his one-year-old daughter Petronila (born 1136 AC) to the Dukeof Barcelona Berenguer Ramón IV, that is, he united the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of Barcelona, which from that moment will go together along the path of the future history of the Iberian Peninsula.
20 years later, in 1157 AC, the firstborn of a couple formed by Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronila was born, named after his father, Ramon Berenguer, who would rule with the name Alfonso II.
In 1162, as a result of the dynastic union of Aragon and Catalonia, Alfonso II became king of the newly united kingdom. King Jaime I expanded the borders to the southern territories of the Kingdom of Valencia (Fig. 10).
Change in language. Cultural component
Occitan, or Provençal, was the first vulgar language to spawn cultural poetry, which was admired throughout Europe. Troubadours spread new cultural models.
Change in Religion. Cathars and Catholics in the lands of Catalonia.
The Cathars (Albigonians) and their influence on Catalonia since 1165 AD.
In 1165 AC, a new religious trend, Catharism, unfolded in the lands of Occitanic, which was soon condemned as heresy by the Roman Church. The Cathars were also known as the Albigensian, as they became known at a council held near Albi in 1165 AC.
The meaning of the teachings of the Cathars.
They called themselves "good people" or, simply, Christians. The Cathars believed that the universe was the result of a substantial confrontation between good and evil in which they placed the official Church. They preached poverty, denied the existence of sacraments, and believed in reincarnation.
Crusade against the Cathars 1208-1255 AC
On March 11, 1208 AC, Pope Innocent III preached a crusade against the Cathars.
It was the first crusade that did not go to the Holy Land and opposed not Muslims but heretics. The papal call gathered about 5,000 horsemen and about 10,000 to 15,000 infantries from the north. Led by Cistercian monk who was the papal legate Amalric.
Amory ordered the killing of more than 20,000 people in Bézier (almost the entire population that was
hiding there), arguing that God would already distinguish between good and heretics.
In 1204, the Duke of Barcelona and King of Aragon the Catholic Peter I (Pedro I), decided to defend his vassals. In 1204, he received this title from the pope, renewing the vassal dependence of his kingdoms on Rome.
In 1212, together with the kings of Castile and Navarre, he won the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa against the Muslims of the Almoravid clan [1; 13].
Defeat of Pedro I.
However, a year later, on September 12, 1213 AC, Pedro clashed in Mura with other Occitan nobles with crusader troops under the command of Simon de Mont-fort.The battle turned into a real defeat for the Catalans and Occitan, and Pedro I lost his life there [13].
End of the Crusade
The crusade lasted until 1255 and included the extermination of the Albigensian and the rule of the King of France over Occitanic. Many Occitanes took refuge in Catalonia.
In 1258, the Catalan counties of France formally became independent of France. This came as a result of the fact that a treaty was signed between King Jaime I of Aragon and King Louis IX of France. Then both kings renounced rights to the territory: Jaime I - to the Occitan territories, and the French - to the Catalan the districts that became dependent solely on the King of Aragon.
The indefinite border of the Muslim world.
Formation of Old and New Catalonia.
Old Catalonia.
The Arab-Islamic influence in the lands of modern Catalonia was uneven. In Old Catalonia, that is, located north of the Harraf-Llobregat-Cardener-Monsec-Valle del Cinca axis, it was very scarce [5; 13].
Over time, the Marca of Spain (Marca Hispánica) would also be known as Old Catalonia, unlike the rest of modern Catalonia, where Islamic rule would still last for two and a half centuries (Fig. 24, 25, 26, 27),
New Catalonia.
In New Catalonia, below this geographical line, Arab rule lasted for three and a half centuries and generated numerous economic and cultural influences, one of which was population differentiation.
1) ancient Mozarabs were called the indigenous inhabitants of Catalonia, who retained their Christian faith. In this area, although some Jewish and Christian cores (called Mozarabs) remained, most of the population converted to Islam. The same applies to the Arabic language and customs and dress. It should be borne in mind that the Arab-Islamic community has reached an economic, technological and cultural level much higher than that of Christian Europe.
2) Muladi are Christians who have adopted the Muslim faith to improve their quality of life.
3) Jews who constituted a clearly differentiated minority.
4) Arab and Berber invaders who held power and seized most of the land and property, although they were a minority.
As Catalan researchers write, the Arab presence did not have a direct impact on medieval Catalan culture [1; 5; 13].
The result of the research.
Understanding the place of the Catalans in world history and understanding their development of self-consciousness is possible only through a historical view of the development of a mixture of tribes and nations in the territory of Catalonia, changes in religion and linguistic change.
One can stick to the point of view of the Catalans themselves, who say that Catalan is a language formed from vulgar Latin and after comparing various historical processes, we can distinguish several stages of the formation of a society that identifies itself as Catalans.
Stage I. Integration of society. Iberian tribes.
Stage one of the formation of society included the long-term influence of different peoples who came from three different sides to the territory of present-day Catalonia: the peoples who came from the Pyrenean mountains, the Phoenicians and the Greco-Phocaeans. As a result, there were numerous tribes of Iberians who inhabited the territory of Catalonia before the arrival of the Carthaginians and Romans. The tribe of The Iler-gets was a vivid example of such a generation of autochthonous culture in the territory of modern Catalonia.
Stage II. Formation of the Catalan population. Ibero-Romans.
It is interesting to recognize the Catalans themselves about their identity.
«We Catalans are essentially primitive Romans».
Romanization involved two phenomena.
On the one hand, the autochthonous peoples of Iberian culture lived a progressive but unstoppable tendency towards integration into Roman cultural models, and on the other hand, the settlement on the territory of retired Roman legionaries who received land ownership also contributed to making this cultural leap a reality.
Stage III. The stage of the integration of society and the emergence of Gotolania (Gotolania sounds like Catalonia).
The origin of the main composition of the population and the word Catalonia itself. The word Catalonia comes from the word Gotolania, that is, the lands of the Goths and the Alans.The settlement of the Goths, who drove the Alans, Vandals and other tribes from the Iberian Peninsula, led to a new world order, when the Goths established their kingdoms and their world orders without mixing with the Roman-Iberian population of the Catalan lands. Establishing various laws of administration, justice and taxes for the local population and the Goths themselves, creating a higher layer of society from themselves, the Goths built their kingdom on strength and fear, not finding support from the population, but supported by the church.
Stage IV. Catalonia as a "buffer zone" between the Muslim world and the Western Empire of Charlemagne.
This is the time when there was a rapid seizure of catalan lands by Muslims and the reconquest of these lands by the Franks with the formation of the "Spanish
Mark" and "County of Catalonia", and later - the "House of Barcelona", in which the community of Catalans realizes itself as the advanced detachment of the Christian world in the coordinate system of the West Frankish Empire of Charlemagne on the border with the Muslim world. During this period, the culture and languages of the Franks and Catalans as a union of Christians intertwined in the face of the threat of the seizure of the Muslim world.
Catalans and the perception of Catalans as Franks by their neighbors.
It was then that the Catalans realized themselves as defenders of Christendom, standing guard over its borders with the world of Muslims or as "border guards" of Christendom.
The reconquest of Catalonia was, in fact, a Frank-ish reconquista as a result of which the territory of Catalonia becomes part of the empire of Charlemagne.
As a result, Catalonia did not have a close connection with the rest of the peoples of the peninsula and it was then that the great influence of the French language on the Catalans took place. And the neighbors of the Catalans know the Catalans as the Franks "francos". It is this - the borderline of the Frankish empire with the Muslims, the awareness of itself as an important border area in the face of the entire Muslim world, that made the Catalans conscious defenders of Christianity, and the French language entered the daily world of the Catalans, who had no alternative and the life choice was only from two opposite sides - either to be Christians on the outskirts of the Holy Roman Empire or to become Muslims on the outskirts of the Caliphate of Cardova and to become enemies of Christians. Therefore, relations with the northern neighbors further strengthened ties with Septimania, from which help could be expected.
Thus, Catalonia has become the most important "buffer zone" between the Christian and Muslim worlds. And this determined the future of Catalonia itself both in terms of language and in terms of relations with its neighbors and its development.
Stage V. From the rupture of the County of Catalonia with France in the X century. and the acquisition of a new history of the County of Catalonia, associated with the crown of Aragon in the XIII century.
The most important stage of the national consciousness of the Catalans occurred during the hundred years of the X century. Currently there was a process of breaking the counts of Barcelona with the Frankish monarchs.
This process defined the self-consciousness of the Catalans not as part of the Western Frankish Empire, and not as a fragment of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, but as an independent state with the sovereignty of the counts of Barcelona, so called only nominally, but in fact, having independent Christian rulers.
The events have a transparent cause-and-effect relationship and are associated with the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne and the emirate of Al-Andalus.
As a result of the fact that the county of Catalonia did not receive support from the West and was left
alone during the attack of Muslims, the counts of Catalonia decided to rely only on themselves. As a result of various marriage unions, Catalonia bloodlessly expanded into the territory of France to Carcassonne and Montpellier (Fig. 10).
Taking advantage of the discontent of Christians due to the establishment of high taxes by Muslim rulers and the instability of power, the counts of Barcelona were able to expand their possessions to Murcia. Due to the sufficient isolation of the lands of Catalonia from the Western Empire of the Franks and the center of Muslim formations, two centers were formed on the territory of Catalonia - old Catalonia and New Catalonia with an inaccurate border and unstable ties.
However, it was this period that formed what is called the language of Catalonia, which became the language of the troubadours and spread throughout Europe. And as time has shown, the Muslim influence did not strongly involve the Christian population living in the lands of Catalonia into the orbit of Arab culture and habits, forming a phenomenal alloy in the form of a kind of culture, language, traditions and way of life in which different peoples and tribes are mixed, in which their languages and traditions are intertwined, which made the Catalans not like all other peoples, but gave them an impetus for multi-vector development in the further history of the world.
Application
Fig. 1. Excavations of the ruins of Roman cities. Tarraco (modern city of Tarragona) and the city of Emporium (near the modern city of Girona). Photo by Ashrafyan K.E.
Fig. 3. Iberian style of houses. Reconstruction. Museum of the city of Lugo, Spain. Photo by Ashrafyan K.E.
Fig. 4. Roman house excavated in the city of Sant Carlos de la Rapita (La Rapita), province of Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain. Photo by Ashrafyan K.E.
2 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ind%C3%ADbil_i_Mandoni.jpg
FIg. 5. Preserved Roman aqueduct (Devil's Bridge) near the city of Cairns (Aqueducte de les Ferreres). The inscription reads: "On November 30, 2000, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee united the existing city of Cairns, including it in the archaeological complex of Tarraco in the World Heritage List".
A) Press of the Roman and Greek era. B) The lever press. Roman era.
C) Vertical mill. The Roman Era. D) Press for grapes ofIberian peoples. Fig. 6. Various presses from the Roman and Greek era of Catalonia. The author is Professor Jose Bort Chavar-
ria. Photo by Ashrafyan K.E. City of Tortossa. Catalunia.
Fig. 7. Comparison of Roman roads (Via Augusta, Via Domitia) with a map of modern highways in Spain.
Fig. 8. The Roman Road Via Domitia in Narbonne and the remains of the Roman road Via Domitia in Nar-
bonne, France. Photo by Ashrafyan K.
Fig. 9. Excavations of the ancient city near Castell-Platja d'Aro, Girona. Photo by Ashrafyan K.
Fig. 10. The maximum territory of Catalonia, during the reign of the Behringer dynasty, lying from Spanish
Murcia to French Montpellier.
Fig. 11. The names and boundaries of the buffer territories of modern Catalonia, between the Frankish Empire and the Caliphate of Córdoba by 1000 AD, as well as the approximate boundaries of Old Catalonia and New
Catalonia, realized by the end of the fifteenth century.
Fig. 12. Signal "Tower of the Moors" (Torre de los Moros) in the city of Sant Carles de la Rapida. Photo by Ashrafyan K.
Fig. 13. Roman Villa Romana del Pla de Palol (I century BC - VIIAD). ROMAN VILA AT PLA DE PALOL
I-st Century BC - VII-th century AD The Roman villa at Pia de Palol has been known since 1876, even though the
first excavations were carried out in 1959 with the finding of a remarkable spa.The excavations were resumed in 1984, mainly in the area located by the road from Platja d'Aro to Calonge. All this shows us that the archaeological remains you can now see, excavated during 1998 and the first
months of 1999, are only a small part of what was a huge architectural complex. The presence of the spas shows the existence of a residential area, probably a very luxurious one, which presently we know nothing about. On the other hand, the excavated area belongs to what we could call the rural part of the villa; that is, an area used to store products grown in the fields or to make manufactured items. According to the found remains, we know that Pla de Palol developed during the
1st century AD an important economic activity related to viticulture which not only included wine production but also its export. We have also found out that one of the characters who took part in this activity was called PORCIANUS.
From an architectonic point of view, the villa is structured around two or three large terraces. The higher terrace was centered around a lime-paved patio from which two corridors started. This sector features a warehouse containing several earthen vats which were used to store different products: wine, oil, cereal, etc. The central terrace shows a large non-built open surface, delimited on its eastern side by a large corridor leading to three big rooms whose function is unknown. The lower terrace is presently being excavated and shows some very remarkable features, such as a large tank or several buried large earthen vats.
Fig. 14. The map compiled by I.K. Garshin. The Iberian script is among other Iberian scripts.
1. Neolithic cabdill necklace. Mas Benita (l'Aldea). 5,000-2,000 BC.
Fig. 17. Poblat iberic de la Moleta del Remei (Alcanar). VII century B.C. andII century B.C.
Fig. 17. Roman honorary Pedestal (Tortosa). I A.C.
Fig. 18. Roman honorary Pedestal (Tortosa). IV century A.C.
Fig. 19. Visigoth coins (L'ametlla De Mar). VI century.
Fig. 20. Trilingual tombstone "Latin-Greek-Hebrew" (Tortosa). VI century.
Fig. 21. Cadup of Muslim. (Museum de les Terres de l'Ebre). XI century.
Fig. 22. Muslim funerary Stela (necropolis of the Suda). XII century.
Fig. 23. Castle of the Order of the Temple of Miravet. XII Century
Fig. 24. Capella del monestir de Santa Maria de la Rapita. XIII century.
Fig. 25. Castle of the Order of the Hospital (Amposta). XIII century.
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