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TYPES OF MONTAGE IN THE VISUAL ARTS AND CINEMA
Abstract
The paper discusses and compares the montage schemes in the construction of creations of art and cinema. The paper presents classification of mounting analogy in art and cinema. The purpose of the study is to identify common roots underlying the cinematic and art montage formulas and modifications established long before the birth of the cinema, and then sought it. The obtained results extend our knowledge about the formation of the cinema, the formation of its language and style. The developed material is intended for art experts, culturologists, artists, film experts and all the readers, who are interested in art history and its interrelationship with the cinema.
Keywords
moving perspective, types of montage, art composition in movies, cinematic composition in painting
AUTHORS
Elena Skorik
artist, winner of international art competitions, winner of the All-Russian competition «The best scientific article» Moscow, Russia skorikcrew@yandex.ru
Alexander Skorik
head of the «Post-production» winner of the All-Russian competition «The best scientific article» Moscow, Russia skorikcrew@yandex.ru
Montage - specific cinematic language and imagery. Montage manipulates by time, space and motion, creates the illusion of reality on the screen, which is necessary for an artist to express his attitude to life, his thoughts, his ideas. The best masters of cinema paid great attention to the creative process of montage and to explore its capabilities. Widely known in the world works on montage of S.Eisenstein, A.Dovzhenko, V.Pudovkin, Dz.Vertov, L.Kuleshov, S.Yutkevich, A.Tarkovsky. B.Balazs, L.Delluk, Z. Kracauer, A.Bazen did research in this area abroad. As a fact of director's practices montage appeared in the films of D.Griffith, was reflected in the theoretical works of L.Kuleshova and turned into a developed cinematic theory of S.Eisenstein. S. Eisenstein also studied communication of cinematic montage with montage in other arts.
According to R.Yurenev "to understand the laws of young cinema is possible only in the context of the regularities of the whole artistic culture" (Yurenev, 1998). Montage is not exceptional features of a movie. Here he only expressed especially brightly. In this article an attempt was made to see, explore, and for the first time to classify the visual
side of this phenomenon in art from the point of view of its cinematic manifestations and to determine communication of the cinematic montage with the traditional picturesque imagery.
The great interest for artists of all time was the categories of space and time. The space-time continuum was a keystone in the development of visual art. Reflections on the variability of these concepts, their mutual influence on each other was reflected in the montage structures artistic works.
According to U. Lotman "film is the only type of visual art, in which point of view has mobility and therefore receives a particularly important role in the construction of the language of this art" (Lotman, Tsivyan,1994). Actually the mobile point of view in painting and sculpture frequently encountered phenomenon. Moving perspective of Chinese and Japanese landscapes on scrolls was built on the principle of multilevel space and was assembled from montage parts. As if the artist examines the viewed object from different sides. The unwinding of the scrolls and the study of spatial-temporal drawings makes impression of watching movies. The most famous monument in Rome - the Column of Trajan (II century) - the phenomenon cinematic vision, a kind of film in stone. Lifting eyes from the bottom up, the audience is watching frame by frame narrative of combat exploits of the Emperor Trajan and the capture of Dacia by the Romans. The Emperor appears on these reliefs more than eighty times. Sculptor represents the views from the side, bottom, top, large and medium plans, and in each there is a leader, as the main character of the first in the history of the kinotrailer. These examples show that cinema as a synthesis of space, motion, time-based montage expression originated in the visual art. Contemporary art successfully exploits innovations of cinematic art in the field of montage of storylines. In this perspective, you can define deterministic communications and open new horizons of research in integration of the arts. In this article was first held classification in the field of montage in the works of visual art and cinema.
1. Interframe montage.
In the cinema - this circumcision of the cinematic tape to eliminate the unnecessary pieces, insert and gluing of additional frames. In painting is the increase or decrease of ready works for the improvement of the composition, as well as for correction of any details. For example, Rembrandt van Rijn increased from below «The Night Watch» (1642), and cut off at the edges " The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis" (1661). In the history of art there is a legend that V.Surikov started to paint «Boyarynya Morozova» (1884) on the canvas is smaller, but later he increased the bottom edge of the canvas to increase the perspectives of the road.
2. Serial montage.
With this method, the events on the screen are displayed in the order in which they occur in life. The film is stretched in a line, in with is logic of spatial-temporal and causal relations. In painting Raphael created with great skill serial montage of events when writing frescoes «Deliverance of Saint Peter» (1511-1514). In centre of the prison the artist painted the Apostle, over which the angel is inclined. In the right part the same angel leads the same Peter out of prison, while the guard is asleep, in the left - the guards woke up, found the disappearance of Peter and raised the alarm. Rafael joined temporal and spatial motives, using a serial visual montage in this fresco. The same thing is observed at the fresco of Michelangelo's «The fall and expulsion from Paradise» (1508). The title about sequence of actions speaks for itself. In the picture S.Botticelli «Spring» (1477-1478) God of the West wind, Zephyrus catches nymph and immediately turns it into Flora, goddess of flower and the messenger of spring. All this transformation is presented in one picturesque format. Botticelli also joined four serial events on the canvas in «Last Miracle and the Death of St. Zenobius» (1500-1505). All the stories about the Holy are drawn one by one from left to right like a film with serial frames. The picture of Tintoretto «The Finding of the Body of Saint Mark» (1562) you should consider with the last plan. Several
episodes of one history are presented on a single scenic space. M.Escher included transformations in the form of the serial montage in his intricate metamorphosis («Predestination» 1951). He made the dynamics of consecutive transition one form to another. Changes in time and space of different images were created by Leonardo da Vinci. He imprinted on paper the serial phases of a flight of a bird and a phased moving of head of a young girl «Madonna with a cat» (1478). Leonardo da Vinci was peculiar to create dynamic works, using the serial montage. Movement - the basis of life, static destroys the reality effect. Even in the portraits he creates variability in the nature of art, the transitions from one emotional state to another. The striving of genius of Renaissance to integrate statics with dynamics is observed in almost all its artistic heritage. Mona Lisa's smile is the cinematic changes of the emotional state of this model, the transition from one mood to another within the boundaries of one portraiture. This is a serial montage of half of the face of the Mona Lisa with a smile and thoughtful half of her face without the smile. In the portrait of «Mona Lisa» in the field of view misses something one side of the face, then the other. Initially the viewer sees a smiling half of the face, and then brooding half. «Mona Lisa» was the implementation of the cinematic artist's ideas and his foresight of the new dynamic of depiction.
3. Parallel montage.
On the screen above the narrative level can be another textual layer in which the events are connected vertically. The essence of this method is the alternation of separate film frames representing one action with the film frames representing another action. This causes the impression of simultaneous development of two parallel actions and helps to concentrate viewer's attention on one episode and yet emotionally to prepare for the perception of the other episode («Rescued by Rover» dir. C.Hepworth, 1905; «The cranes are flying» dir. M. Kalatozov, 1957). In the visual art work of the artist F.Zurburan "Prayer of St. Bonaventure" (1629) is similar to the parallel film montage. This story about how holy Cardinal settled the dispute over the election of the Pope and called a worthy candidate. The artist combined two different events in different places, non-sequentially, and running parallel. On the right side - the contending Cardinals, on the left -Bonaventure's cell.
4. Associative montage.
Associative montage causes a certain connection (association), and thus there is an understanding of the new meaning of the main action or the natures of the characters. Thus, the viewer thinks up something that does not appear on screen, but in his mind the action ends completely. This technique links the frames that differ in content, often giving them a new meaning. In practice, associative montage is often used in conjunction with a parallel montage. Associative montage helps to convey to the audience the content of the scene in the more pointed form («Detachment» dir. T.Key, 2011). In the film «Solaris» (1972) director A.Tarkovsky mounts the frames in which the son meets the father. This association is related to the picture of Rembrandt «The Return of the Prodigal Son» (16681669). Associative montage in world culture - a favorite technique among artists. In the picture of G.Reni «Drinker Bacchus» (1623) infant Bacchus is drinking wine instead of milk. Wine barrel next to him is filled and emptied at the same time, quite eloquently describes licentious Roman God of wine.
5. Cross-montage.
Cross-montage is a kind of parallel montage. This connection of multi-temporal and spatial frames (e.g., past, present, future, or not the best moments in the life of the hero and happy), and some may be monochromatic, other chromatic («Babylon» dir. A.Inarritu, 2006; «Taras Bulba» dir. V.Bortko, 2008; ). Often used soft transition from frame to frame. The image gradually disappears, becoming more transparent and this image is replaced by another image. Such influx, soft transition from heaven to earth can be seen in the work of Rafael's «Sistine Madonna» (1514). Virgin Mary with the Divine Child in her arms
coming out of the hazy heavenly space filled with vague outlines of angelic entities.
In the picture «The Return of the Prodigal Son» (1668-1669) Rembrandt created a smooth transition of characters from darkness to light, from the dark state to a state of happiness, caused by the meeting between father and son. The fresco «Judas Kiss» by Giotto (1303-1305) is an example of a composition with a cross- montage. This story from the Bible is a symbol of betrayal that caused the crucifixion of Christ. In the depth of the image a young man blows into the horn. The horn is a harbinger of the future resurrection of the Son of God. Death has not yet occurred, but there is news of a return to life. D.E.Milles in the picture «Christ in the parental home» (1849-1850) depicted the baby Jesus in a carpenter's workshop. Little Jesus hurt his hand by a nail, and this incident pointed to the coming crucifixion.
6. Alternate montage.
Specificity of alternate montage is that the action is interrupted regardless of its completion in the most dramatic place. Change of the scene at the climax was for the screen art quite habitually. In painting the alternate montage was habitual for artists since ancient times. Iconographers wrote different temporal and spatial scenes in a single panorama. In the iconography of the time of Ivan the Terrible the alternate montage of dramatic events of the conquest of Kazan (1552) in one artistic space increases the tension as a whole («Church Militant» 1550).
7. Invisible montage.
Filmmaker G.Pabst made montage less noticeable for a smooth flow of action. He did a new insert at the moment when the object moved across the screen. First Pabst applied invisible montage in street scenes («Joyless lane» 1925). In the visual arts virtuoso of the invisible montage was Veronese. In the horizontal composition «Marriage at Cana» (1564), the artist has included various scenes taking place at different times: the famous scene of the miracle of Christ, and the scene of feasting with his contemporaries. Mary and Christ are invited to the celebration, and temporal boundaries between them and other guests erased. Invisible mounting joined seven noble deeds of charity in the picture Caravaggio «Acts of Mercy» (1607). In the «School of Athens» (1511) Rafael united all representatives of this school in one interior. K.Bryullov in «The Last Day of Pompeii» (1830-1833) three times depicted the Countess Yu.P.Samoylovu in different roles on the background of one story. In «Luncheon on the Grass» (1865), the artist Claude Monet put all people in one landscape, for which there was only one model in different poses. The changing of the scenes with the same actors in the boundaries of the single picture were created by the artist Monet as an invisible montage about the history of the Sunday picnic. Followers of such Invisible montage in painting were futurists who rejected traditional culture in all its manifestations, and glorified the new era of industrialism and cinematography. Many of the works of the Futurists were integrated with the cinema. Unique forms of continuity in space («Red Car» 1904-1905) were created by the artist U.Bochchoni in a number of his paintings. The deterministic formula of the montage was derived in the picture of I.Glazunov «Eternal Russia» (1988). Russian story unfolds before the audience as on a screen.
8. Multiscreen montage.
Multiscreen montage provides simultaneous display of several thematically related images in the frame. In cinema the multiscreen montage appeared in the mid-20th century, but became popular especially in the 21st century. Segmented film footage, are collected into a single visual context, creates an entirely different meaning of the composition («Phone Booth» dir. D.Shumaher, 2002 ; «Aviator» dir. M.Skortseze, 2004 ; «The Lake House» dir. A. Agresti, 2006.). The determinant of the split screen is expressed in different ways. For example, a frame can be built on the basis of variations of simultaneous events at different points around the main event, or the dynamics of chromatic and monochromatic accents with the purpose of identifying of the climax action
with the main character. Split screen, constructed of several video modules, gives the viewer more information per unit of screen time. Differentiation of different spatiotemporal plans is a feature of European paintings from the XV century and iconographic compositions with scenes from his life on the perimeter. Icon can include all the living space of objects of religious worship in different moments of their history in one picture («Nikola Zaraisky with Life» XIV century). Such space was created by netherlandish painter J. Bosch in the picture «The Seven Deadly Sins» (1480) - montage of several scenes in one format. The Sins are situated in the center of the picture, and the retributions are placed around the sins. Each author mounts multiscreen elements on a mural or a painting in different ways depending on the concept of the pictorial story. In 1508 Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the papal residence - the Vatican. He created his own visual architecture, dividing it into parts: the powerful pillars, cornices and arches were thrown through the space of the chapel. All gaps between the pillars and arches are filled with images of people involved in various storylines. This visual architecture organizes painting, separates one composition from another, creating powerful picturesque «wide screen» for the presentation of the history of the world. By today's standards the author chose quite cinematic method. The history of the world is written in fragments. Mihelanzhelo also portrayed this story in fragments. Another original idea of the multiscreen montage in painting - is a drawing of the mirror in the picture. Through the mirror the artist can show the inner world of the hero to expose secrets, dreams, memories, that is to create two different worlds, reality and through the looking glass (K.Massys «Shroff with his wife» 1510-1515). You can see the interesting multiscreen montage in painting of the Spanish painter D.Velaskesa («The Spinners» 1657). The picture is divided into two parts. The first plan is the beginning of the mythological story, the second plan is its completion. The versatility of this masterpiece includes a visual indication of the breaking through the temporary space - the portal out of the present in the future within the boundaries of a single canvas with the same actors. Scriptwriters often exploit this method in the cinema. In the thriller «The Da Vinci Code» by R. Howard (2006) on the screen at once, you can keep abreast of events that occur in the past, such as childhood memories of the heroine of the film, and the events taking place at the present time. In the sci-fi thriller «The Prophet» (directed. Tamahori, 2007) on the screen, viewers can see scenes from the short-term situations, and those that will come later.
9. Colliding images.
For the development of film language, many directors and art directors have used and continue to use the montage, an analogue of which we find in the visual arts.
In 1515, Leonardo, as the author of a scientific figure, reproduced the end of the world in the apocalyptic series «The Flood», using expressive lines for the image of collisions of the raging nature. In the future, the theme of «colliding» images will be popular enough for painters. In 1891, the artist D. Ensor wrote such remake («Christ tames storm»). The merging of stormy sky and the huge waves, he handed by the nerve strokes and by the intense paints. U.Bochchoni, futuristic artist, depicts the modern city as a clash of streets and blocks «Street is included in the House» (1911).
Images drawn from different perspectives were joined into a single unit by the artist Picasso in the picture "Portrait De Femme» 1937). For the first time in a movie the directed Sergei Eisenstein used this montage in the film «Battleship Potemkin» (1925). He shoot scenes from different angles and distances. Thanks to the montage, he received colliding images in one episode. To reinforce the impression from the scale of battles the director Sergei Bondarchuk did this in his kinoromanes "War and Peace" (1967) and "Waterloo" (1970). Nowadays, computer technology is widely used to create colliding frames in the cinema about disasters («2012» dir. R. Emmerich, 2009). Also, artists of the computer graphics are creating their fantasy using colliding images.
10. Simultaneous montage.
The birth of cinema led to the emergence of such section in a futuristic painting as simultaneity (the combination of different spatial and time images in one picture). The basic idea for futuristic artists was to find a plastic expression of speed, as the main characteristic of the pace of life, like the cinema. For futurists the cinema becomes the alternate reality (G. Balla «Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash», 1912). However, simultaneous montage appeared in the works of artists long before the birth of cinematic art. In the «Madonna with a Cat» (1478) in search of an interesting composition by Leonardo da Vinci made various versions on a single sheet, he did not hide his preliminary sketches. Retaining separate phases of the movement, he created the illusion for the observer looking from the top, side or bottom. But the history will show that the images from different points of view have already met in the pre-Columbian Indians Figures. In the Sumerian civilization (IV century BC) the simultaneity was a reflection of the nonstatic world. For example, in the relief image of a winged bull with five legs the simultaneity helped to see the movement of the bull in space and time. The same movement we see in the picture «Peasant Wedding» (1566-1567) of the artist P. Brueghel The Elder. One of the characters, carrying a tray of dishes, has three legs. The simultaneous montage was created by E.Uorhol in «Self-Portrait» (1978) «Revolver» (1982) to make dynamic images. French artist R.Delone first appreciated the simultaneity of aesthetics color. He found that if the colors located in the certain positioning, it is possible to achieve the optical illusion of vibration, depending on the neighboring colors, the intensity, the surface area. After the discovery of this function, the artist expressed the dynamism using color, in a series of paintings called «The round shapes» (1912-1913). In the current era of high-speed and pace of life, no cinematic genre is not without «action», a special energy. Therefore the mere cinema begins to denote simultanizm, to use «the simultaneous montage». For fixing of some stages of the motion the filmmakers began to divide into phases the rampant pace. They were destroying plasticity for to reproduce of the moments of the motion («The Matrix» dir. Andy and Larry Wachowski, 1999; «Prophet» dir. L.Tamahori, 2007; «Limitless» dir. N.Berger, 2011). Dynamic discreteness in the film and the painting is a deterministic component, which enriches the language of art.
11. Overlapping.
The term appeared only in the twentieth century. This type of montage intensifies the depth of space with the help of overlapping of forms and objects. Overlepping is a legacy of the medieval Chinese painting and is found in the works of many great artists. Thanks to overlapping F.Goyya in the picture «Mahi on the balcony» (1805) has created two different worlds - the world of freedom-loving women and peace of the Spanish Inquisition. In the monumental composition «Dream of Ossian» (1813) the artist Ingres has painted the sleeping Celtic poet. Behind him begins the dream world and come alive the characters of his poems. The painting works of a soviet artist T. Nazarenko are analytic and multidimensional in reading. Her painting «Moscow evening» (1978) was written as a group portrait of the artist's friends. Background in the picture - this is not the interior of the studio, and the landscape of Moscow. On the table there are old photographs, old magazines, reproductions of portraits. Young people inspired by these news of a bygone era, mentally were transported into the world of these heroes. T. Nazarenko breaks the boundaries of the interior and disposes heroes in free space (the first overlepping), where you can see the vintage portrait painted by G.Ostrovsky (the second overlepping). The author has combined different time epochs, thus has constructed the composition as a multilayer cinematic frame. The overlapping of events as the successful method of the montage is used in different genres of cinema. For the show the dreams, thoughts of the characters, their past or future the art of screen uses this formula - blending of images. The trick in which two or more images are recorded on a single frame of film can be seen in the movies: «Perfume» (dir. T.Tykver, 2006.); «We are from the Future - 2» (dir.
O.Pogodin, 2010.); «Sherlock Holmes. A Study in Pink» (dir. P.MakGuigan, 2010). In the film-drama «Home of the Brave» (dir. J. Winkler, 2006) demobilized soldiers remember the horrors of the war in Afghanistan, and this war accompanies them during the whole story in the background. Into the crime comedy «Ocean's Thirteen» (dir. S.Soderberg, 2007) all stages of risky operations are combined by overlapping transparent frames.
12. Approximation of objects in painting and film.
Film montage consciously pulls together the space between disparate events and between semantic plans. In this perspective, the works of the artist Surikov are very cinematic. Into the painting «Morning Strelets'execution» (1878-1881) the author deliberately has placed all the buildings on the square near the Execution Ground, using montage of the approximation of the plans. Surikov stressed the power of the former ruler using the approximation of plans into the work «Menshikov in the Birch» (1883). He placed the family in the middle of the hut (medium shot), but wrote them close up (the approximation). With the help of visual montage the artist decided to psychological problem - showed that a former associate of Peter I was strong and in exile. In the movie, the approximation of objects located at a sufficient distance from each other, allows the viewer to watch for the characters of the film on the screen very close («Dangerous Age» dir. A.Proshkin, 1981).
13. Polyptych.
All parts of the polyptych coordinated. They are read as a single text. In pictorial polyptych (diptych, triptych, etc.) there are spatio-temporal jumps, the plot associated with the entire product as a whole (I. Bosch «The Garden of Earthly Delights» 1500-1510; Yu.Raksha «Kulikovo Field» 1980). The montage of the compositions in some films is borrowed from the construction of fine polyptychs. In modern cinema polyptych of three or four or more short stories helps to more fully reveal the author's intent. In the films from several short films (kinopoliptih) all cinematic space combines a brief narratives, in which the story lines go from one story to another («Paris, I Love You», 2006; «New York, I Love You», 2009).
14. Trailers.
Today any blockbuster has the promotion program. A huge role in this play video ads. Advertising function is performed by means of the trailer. This is a short video, which consists of the most spectacular fragments of the film, combined on the basis of a kaleidoscope. Trailer is coming before or after the movie. It contains the name and logo of the company engaged in the production of the film, list of authors and actors. This label of cinematographic goods consists of pieces which are combined with help of the alternate montage. By itself, this label is associated with a movie with help of the serial montage.
Visual Arts is at the forefront of the invention of art-trailers. L.Kranah Elder, German painter and graphic artist of the Renaissance, has created a great trailer «Hunting for deer and wild boar» (1544). The painting advertises rich land, a variety of trees that grow around a magnificent castle, the abundance of animals and birds.
The hunting scenes, whether on the wild boar, bears, deer, are connected with help of the alternate montage on one canvas. In the picture all viewers can see the following steps of the hunting - hunters are in ambush, observers are waiting for an exciting spectacle, as well as hunters are with the prey. The center of this composition is absent, all items are combined in one graphic clip. And to top it all, in the upper left corner of the picture, the audience can see the coat of arms of the owner, a kind of logo of the manufacturer of all these riches with his subjects - actors.
15. Computer montage.
In modern cinema the montage in digital format became necessary phase of the period «post-production». Unlike century technology without computers, its content is fully consistent with this classification. Currently the virtual movement in the paintings
was made possible by digital technology also. The multimedia exhibition «Van Gogh. Revived paintings», designed and created by the Australian company «GRANDE EXHIBITIONS», represent the dynamic projection of the works of the artist on large screens. The computer montage created the image with moving parts on the picture plane, which attract the audience's attention to the unique style, color and painting of the artist. In his own space, many galleries of the world are beginning to popularize the works of great masters and contemporary art through multimedia projects. Programs using multimedia are multimodal. These programs combine text, sound, animation. This made it possible to visualize the pictures that have become part of the museum of contemporary culture. It provides a qualitatively new level of cinematic perception of visual art.
Through the prism of the discoveries in the montage of fine art one may observe the revealing of tendencies of the cinema, the formation of its language and its stylistic manner. The advent of cinema allows reinterpret the experience of art culture as a prophetic vision of the future of the structure of the cinematic art. The systematization in this direction and the exploration of new possibilities of artistic expression owing to the developing of the digital technologies will become a base in the creation of works of fine art and art screen. From the point of view of the organization and transformation of the material of the plot, the digital cinema will be more and more picturesque, and fine art will be more cinematic. The final result of the study of the relationship of fine art and cinema, one may consider a new understanding and a new perspective on their determinism.
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