CC BY
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DOI: 10.24411/2072-9316-2021-00006
N.A. Bakshi (Moscow)
TRANSLINGUALISM IN THE LIGHT OF SEMIOTICS
("Maybe Esther" by Katja Petrowskaja)
Abstract. Translingualism emerged during the 2000s as a new concept, alongside polylingualism and metrolingualism, that is clearly distinct from the guiding concept of multilingualism. The concept relativizes rigid connections between language, people and territory on the one hand, whilst also calling into question the notion of languages as closed and clearly distinguishable units. It is predicated upon "dynamic bilingualism", whereby the languages involved each represent their own respective system. Translingualism thus brings a new aspect of linguistic reflexion into play. Thus understood, translingualism will be explicated in relation to Katja Petrowskaja's novel. The German author of Ukrainian extraction was awarded the Ingeborg-Bachmann-Prize in 2014 for her debut work "Maybe Esther" in which she describes, in a language that is foreign to her, the story of her family during the World War II, in the course of which a number of her Jewish relatives were murdered. For the purposes of the current paper, the prime interest is not the content of this quite typical 20th century story, but its linguistic conception. Petrowskaja is a professional philologist who graduated from the University of Tartu and its renowned semiotic school led by Jury Lotman and Boris Uspenskij. Her text is deliberately constructed according to semiotic principles and can be read as a literary demonstration of Lotman and Uspenskij's academic concepts. Behind the linguistic peculiarities, a hidden semiotic approach to language is evident, which regards language as a system of symbols. Translingualism in Petrowskaja's writing, which purports to transcend linguistic boundaries by mixing languages and crossing over associ-atively from one language to the other, does not in fact dissolve linguistic boundaries. Rather, it activated reflexive processes across such boundaries. In the light of Lotman's work on culture and cultural memory, Petrowskaja's novel appears not only as a linguistic experiment but also, above all, as an experiment in engaging with diverse cultural codes. The translingual aspect illustrates the reflexion across apparently different and historically unconnected languages and cultures. On the other hand, the concept also contains a conscious denial of power structure associated with to the monolingualism of a national language.
Key words: translingualism; Katja Petrowskaja; World War II; semiotic; Lot-man; cultural memory.
Н.А. Бакши (Москва)
Транслигвизм в свете семиотики («Возможно Эстер» Кати Петровской)
Аннотация. Транслингвизм возник в 2000-х гг. как новая концепция, наряду с полилингвизмом и метролингвизмом, которая четко отличается от общеприня-
той концепции многоязычия. Концепция размывает жесткие связи между языком, людьми и территорией, с одной стороны, и в то же время ставит под сомнение понимание языков как закрытых и четко различимых единиц. Она основывается на «динамичном двуязычии», когда каждый из задействованных языков представляет свою собственную систему. Таким образом, транслингвизм привносит новый аспект лингвистической рефлексии. Понимаемый таким образом транслингвизм будет объяснен в связи с романом Кати Петровской. Немецкий автор украинского происхождения была награждена в 2014 г. премией Ингеборг Бахманн за свою дебютную работу «Возможно Эстер», где она на чуждом ей языке описывает историю своей семьи во время Второй мировой войны, во время которой были убиты несколько ее еврейских родственников. Для целей настоящей работы наибольший интерес представляет не содержание этой вполне типичной истории XX в., а ее лингвистическая концепция. Петровская - профессиональный филолог, окончившая Тартуский университет и его известную семиотическую школу под руководством Юрия Лотмана и Бориса Успенского. Ее текст сознательно построен по семиотическим принципам и может быть прочитан как литературная демонстрация академических концепций Лотмана и Успенского. За языковыми особенностями стоит скрытый семиотический подход к языку, рассматривающий язык как систему символов. Транслингвизм в тексте Петровской, целью которого является преодоление языковых границ путем смешивания языков и ассоциативного перехода от одного языка к другому, на самом деле не размывает лингвистические границы. Скорее, он активирует рефлексивные процессы, пересекающие эти границы. В свете работ Лотмана о культуре и культурной памяти роман Петровской кажется не только лингвистическим экспериментом, но и, прежде всего, экспериментом по взаимодействию с различными культурными кодами. Транслингвистический аспект иллюстрирует рефлексию через различные и исторически не связанные языки и культуры. С другой стороны, концепция также содержит сознательное отрицание структуры власти, соотнесенной с монолингвизмом национального языка.
Ключевые слова: транслингвизм; Катя Петровская; Вторая мировая война; Лотман; семиотика; культурная память.
Katja Petrowskaja, German author of Ukrainian heritage, was awarded the Ingeborg-Bachmann-Prize in 2014 for a debut novel "Maybe Esther", in which she describes, in a language foreign to her, the story of her family during the Second World War, in the course of which many of her Jewish relatives were murdered. For the purposes of the current paper, the prime interest is not the content of this quite typical 20th century story, but its linguistic conception. The author not only decides to write in a foreign language that she only learnt at the age of 27 but also to use the "language of the perpetrators," as her family perceived it. On the one hand, writes the author, she locks jaws with this language like an "occupational power", on the other hand she enables a reconciliation in this language between the perpetrators and the victims. For Petrowskaja, writing in German also signifies an attempt to distance herself from her family's history and thus to find personal freedom. "He who speaks German understands
much better what conscience, historical memory, responsibility towards the world mean. He understands it better than anyone in Russia or in the Ukraine" [Интервью / Interview], the author said in an interview. Her language is imperfect and out of this imperfection, out of the error, fiction emerges. And out of the fiction grows literature.
This is the reason her novel has the title "Maybe Esther". It is about a real story and at the same time a language game, where literature emerges from everyday mistakes, which themselves create another reality. The novel has no coherent, uniform subject. Rather, it consists of numerous small stories that are linked with one another through associative, multilingual connections. These associations create the stories. One example is that various generations of the family had members who were teachers who worked with the deaf and dumb. The Russian word for "dumb", German "stumm", is "nemoj"; the "German" is called "Nemec". This sketches out the first internal connection between Russian and German.
Petrowskaja's writing technique can be described as translingualism, which is clearly distinguishable from multilingualism. The concept of translingualism emerged in the English-speaking world and is associated with the Cuban-American researcher Ofelia Garcia (2009) and the Bangladeshi-American linguist Sureth Garanjanara (2013). It first appeared in the course of the 2000s as a new concept alongside polylingualism and metrolingualism. It differentiates itself on the one hand from rigid connections between language, people and territory and on the other from the notion of language as a self-contained, clearly defined unit. "Recent discourse rejects multilingual research that (often only implicitly) orients itself against the ideological linguistic backdrop pertaining to the nation state" [Androutsopoulos 2017, 197]. The relationship between language and power is regarded critically. "Current [linguistic research] sees the reification of national languages as the basis for practices of exclusion and degradation of linguistic proficiency that do not fulfil the ideal of perfect mastery of a 'self-contained' language." [Androutsopoulos 2017, 199] Translingualism presupposes "dynamic bilingualism" where the languages involved constitute one single system [Garcia 2014, 14]. This brings a new aspect of linguistic reflexion into play. "Overall, translanguaging is to be understood as an overriding concept that starts out by crossing linguistic, semiotic, medial and disciplinary boundaries and focuses on the process of mediating between and in various different languages" [Androutsopoulos 2017, 202].
Petrowskaja's novel cannot be explained solely with reference to language games. Petrowskaja is a professional philologist and graduate of the renowned school of semiotics at the University of Tartu led by Jurij Lotman and Boris Uspenskij. Her text - according to my hypothesis - is inscribed with semiotic theories from this school. To a certain extent, it can be seen as a literary demonstration of Lotman's and Uspenskij's academic concepts.-
In "Maybe Esther"; Petrwoskaja tries to connect the semiotic school of Moscow with the Tartu school. The framework of the Moscow-Tartu school unites two different traditions: the lingustic tradition from Moscow and the lit-
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erary studies tradition from Leningrad, as practiced by Jury Lotman and Sara Minz. The linguistic tradition was based on structural methodologies. For Lot-man, in contrast, the text was the central concept that he used to describe the entire sphere of culture. The most important notion is the semiosphere, which Vernadskij developed in analogy to the term "biosphere". According to Lot-man, the semiosphere "is not a sum of individual languages, but a condition for their existence and their functioning. To a certain extent it precedes them and interacts with them. In this regard, language is a function, a clot in semiotic space, and the border between languages, which seem so clear in grammatical self-definitions of language, are blurred in semiotic space and rife with transitional forms" ("Это семиотическое пространство не есть сумма отдельных языков, а представляет собой условие их существования и работы, в определенном отношении, предшествует им и постоянно взаимодействует с ними. В этом отношении язык есть функция, сгусток семиотического пространства, и границы между ними, столь четкие в грамматическом самоописании языка, в семиотической реальности представляются размытыми, полными переходных форм") [Лотман / Lotman 2000, 250]. Thus he does not conceive of language as solely grammatical structure but above all as cultural units. The semiosphere brings dynamics and inherent ambivalence into structural descriptions of cultural processes. It is a space where significant content is produced and reproduced, where no text or symbol can exist in isolation but they exist together with other texts and form a textual unit. According to Lotman, semiosis is precisely this intertextual communication and the connection between diverse cultural processes. In the semiosphere, interpretation is infinite. Here, the translatability and simultaneous untranslatability of texts reveal themselves in their asymmetry.
Descriptions of Petrowskaja's novel tend primarily to address its linguistic particularity [Bürger-Koftis 2009; Rutka 2016], but behind this particularity we find a hidden semiotic approach to language which sees languages as a cultural system of symbols where each interpretant has an associated designatum.
Petrowskaja unites linguistic and semiotic approaches to culture as text, whereby the linguistic approach brings with it a new ontological viewpoint and creates new connections, whilst the semiotic approach implies a new perceptive method that opens up new horizons.
In the following section, aspects of the novel will be highlighted that are significant in their demonstration of the problematics pertaining to translingual-ism such as language and power and borders and border-crossing, in order to arrive at a conclusive semiotic and epistemological perspective in relation to the continuous process of semiotization.
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The topos of language and power is a prominent issue throughout the novel. The majority of the narrator's relatives speak accent-free German and thus demonstrate their belonging to German culture. On the other hand, the mix of languages is equally central - English, Russian, Polish, Jewish names, cities
and associations. This translingualism contains reflexions between apparently diverse and historically unconnected languages and cultures. It also expresses a conscious denial of the power connected to monolingualism or a single national language. The obverse of linguistic homelessness is cosmopolitan openness.
The topos of language and power pertains not only to German but also to the Russian language. "First, there was an end to the prayers, to Hebrew and Yiddish, then to Ozjel's unconventional curriculum. Later, sign language was forbidden - it was seen as the visible sign of a minority, a closed society, but there could no longer be any minorities in the Soviet Union." [Petrowskaja 2014, 100]. Thus the majority language became power.
A further aspect of the problematic notions of language and power that runs throughout the novel as a central theme is silence in dumbness. The great-grandfather was known for combatting dumbness by teaching deaf and dumb children the language. The narrator feels herself to be silenced in Poland, where she has no mastery of any of the languages of her ancestors - Polish, Yiddish, Hebrew or the language of the deaf and dumb. Silence also pervades the stones from the Jewish cemetery that plaster the streets of Kalisz. This silence is not linguistic but rather a semiotic event, a symbol of a lost history waiting to be translated and interpreted. A symbol of conscious powerlessness.
To a certain extent, this novel can be seen as a continuation of the harrowing thoughts of Adorno and Celan about the possibility of poetry after Auschwitz. In the course of seventy years, this language and cultural memory have undergone profound changes. "The language of the perpetrators" became a language of remorse. For this reason, Petrowsakaja's question is quite different: how can one stop the blame? In the aftermath of the war, it seemed that the only possible way out of the linguistic and cultural crisis was to purify the language and to mistrust. This gave rise to a maximal objectivity and dryness of the language. Seventy years later, Petrowskaja has another answer. The language should be enriched by foreign languages and from an awareness of foreign cultures. Thus the language takes up its own and foreign elements and seems to separate itself from the narrated story. "Grandmother", "Oma" in German, remains the Russian "Babushka" throughout the German text, which serves to accentuate her alterity. The "Yellow Pages" in New York, where the narrator tries to find her relatives named Stern, turn into yellow stars in the telephone directory. Petrowskaja uses translingual methodology in the broad palette of her constructions, thus changing language.
Petrowskaja's translingualism, which supposedly transcends language boundaries by mixing languages and switching associatively from one language to another does not, in fact, give up on borders. Rather, it activates process of reflexion across these borders. The chapter "Recipe" begins with the basin that Don Quichotte wore as a helmet and in which, hundreds of years later, her Jewish grandmother cooked plum compote. Her aunt has worked all her life for the deaf and dumb children; at the end of her life, she herself becomes deaf and dumb. This physical silence conceals a significant history of death and suffering. The narrator interprets the Russian abbreviation "evr." that appears
in a recipe both as "evrejskij" (Jewish) and as "evropejskij" (European), which leads her to thoughts about Jews as the last Europeans. These musing brings us back to the beginning of the chapter and to Don Quichotte, the bearer not just of the basin but also of all European values. As a student of Lotman, Petrowskaja transforms the everyday space surrounding her deceased aunt into the semi-osphere in which every detail becomes a symbol, starting with the basin and continuing to the abbreviation "evr." that creates a connection between Jews and Europeans. This language leaves the reader no choice but to consider the etymology of both words, which draws attention to the fact the "Jew" comes from the Hebrew "ivri", "standing on the other side" (q.v.: https://dic.academic. ru/contents.nsf/dic_fwords/), whilst the etymology of "Europe" is not quite as clear but the prevailing notion is that it signifies "darkness", and "the land of the sunset" [Лосев / Losev 1957, 194]. Most of the stories are constructed in this tension between attraction and repellence, the familiar and the foreign. The main event, Esther's death, is interrupted by the childhood story about the underworld and Achilles, who was dipped into the waters of the Styx, the river of death. Not only the Russian words for "Jewish" and "Europe" sound similar; the same is true of the Yiddish and German languages. The grandmother, who speaks Yiddish, encounters a German soldier in the hope of forging a contact in a similar language. She overlooks, in so doing, that she is one of those who "stand on the other side" and as such belong to the underworld. This underworld itself, the world of darkness, leads us back to the land of the sunset, Europe.
In the light of Lotman's work on culture and cultural memory, Petrows-kaja's novel seems to be not just a linguistic experiment but above all an experiment engaging with diverse cultural codes. "The productivity of the creation of meaning in the process of engaging with the texts that are retained in cultural memory, and with contemporary codes, is dependent on the semiotic turn" ("Продуктивность смыслообразования в процессе столкновения хранящихся в памяти культуры текстов и современных кодов зависит от меры семиотического сдвига") [Лотман / Lotman 1992, 202]. This is precisely what Petrowskaja does. She engages with diverse cultural codes - with the code of the victims of the second world war and the code of modern German culture, the code of repentance and recognition of guilt. These codes exist in contemporary society parallel to and independently of one another, to the extent that the German admission of guilt has no effect on the Russian code of the victims. In fact, every attempt to rethink the victims' code crashes against the broader problematics of national identity that do not tolerate rethinking in this regard. Engaging with these in a flow of shifting languages brings the author to the fruitful "semi-otic turn" [Демин / Demin 2018], which brings unexpected connections to light (deaf and dumb children as connection to the German, "nemye").
Lotman also describes the origins of translingualism in semiotics: "The situation of the diversity of languages is the primary condition" [Лотман / Lotman 2000, 13] in the semiosphere. "The recognition of a foreign culture does not mean translating its 'termini' into the own cultural language, but requires looking for a common language" [Демин / Demin 2017].
Communication for Lotman is inseparably connected with translation, which is seen as the most basic act of thought. "The nature of the intellectual act", writes Lotman, "can be described in the termini of translation" [Лотман / Lotman 2000, 16]. This is precisely what Petrowskaja does by translating her story into a foreign language. She described it in an interview thus:
If you write war stories in Russian, there is in some way an implicit moral right in the language itself, because one identifies oneself with the victims and the victors, "we are right". Although we know about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, we have a discourse of suffering and winning. If you tell the same story in German, it obviously doesn't make it Beckett, but a strange alienation happens when these stories free themselves from psychological and biographical concreteness and are filled with something anthropological. The text that I read at the competition is called 'Maybe Esther' and it's about my great grandmother, about whom we know that she was killed next to our house, but we do not know exactly what her name was or how exactly she was killed. I try to tell the story of my family in such a way that every reader could 'adopt' them, take my grandmother as their own, protect her. When you tell the story not in Russian but in another language, it makes it unclear who you are. This kind of story must be told in Russian to be true. The only fictional thing in my story is the language exchange, and this switching evokes alienation, where we find ourselves in a situation where the reader no longer knows who they are identifying with. In this way, my Jewish grandmother lends herself to every German reader. [Беседа... / Conversation...].
The author sees the story of Judas Stern as an act of translation. He was a relative who assassinated the counsellor of the German embassy in 1932. The Polish Jew was named Jehuda, like one of Jacob's sons in the Book of Genesis, indeed like a number of prophets, yet in the Russian translation he became Judas, the betrayer of Christ and in this case a betrayer of the Russian people and a disturber of the peace.
Petrowskaja's translingualism conceals another far more important episte-mological question pertaining to historical processes and their interpretation. "When Lida, my mother's older sister, died, I understood what the word history means" [Petrowskaja 2014, 30]. For the first-person narrator, history means not being able to ask, not being able to experience anything, that one will never know for sure. Thus history means no exact knowledge, but instead an interpretation of events. It can only be experience through fiction or through literature. This gives rise to the emergence of a different truth that replaces historical truth. This is just how Boris Uspenskij describes semiotics: "Cultural semiotic approaches to history appeal to the internal perspective of participants in historical processes. Significant is that which is recognized as being significant from their perspective. This is about reconstructing those subjective motives which portray and immediate impulse for a given event (which determine the course of history). This necessarily presupposes that subjective motivations reflect more general principles". [Успенский / Uspenskiy 1994, 5]. In this way, the historical process becomes an ongoing process of interpretation from the internal
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perspective of the participant and their communication, which give rise to a given event. Thus the author tries to reconstruct the history of Esther, who was killed during the murder of Jews of Kiev. For Petrowskaja, the story is not the fact that Esther was murdered but the internal process that preceded the event; i.e. Esther's refusal to hide, her wilful resolution to join all the other Jews in going to Babij Jar despite her age and her inability to move, and her attempt to communicate with the German officer. Petrowskaja's book grows out of history as seen from a semiotic perspective.
Uspenskij compares history to a dream as a boundary space between the visible and invisible world. The boundary is one of the central concepts in Lot-man's semiotics. "Both in perceiving a dream and in perceiving history, one has symbols from another reality" [Успенский / Uspenskiy 1994, 7]. This is precisely how Petrowskaja compares history to symbols from her own dreams. In the chapter "Lost Letters", she describes the gravestones from the Jewish cemetery that were sawn off during the war and laid into the plaster with the letters face-down in order to eliminate memories of Jews. Later, though, when they wanted to lay new pipes, they dug up the stones and when they put them back, some of them had the letters facing upwards, and so individual letters suddenly appeared underfoot. This is reflected in an old dream the author describes, where instead of a long-sought book, she finds a single letter from an unknown alphabet in a post office, and this letter is a symbol that connects the visible and invisible world, and awaits interpretation.
The book ends with a kind of day-dream. After many years, the first-person narrator returns to her home town and at the crossroads in front of her own house, she encounters an old lady dressed entirely in white, who smiles and says "I have been meeting you here somewhat too often recently"; upon which the lady disappears without a trace. In this finale, all the major themes come back together - at these crossroads of streets, cultures, languages and fortunes, of the past and the future, of the visible and the invisible, of history and literature.
REFERENCES (RUSSIAN)
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REFERENCES (Articles from Academic Journals)
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4. Bürger-Koftis M. "Die Sprache verändert sich, und WIR VERÄNDERN SIE MIT". (Alma Hadzibeganovic) Anregungen zur Untersuchung der Sprache bei Autorinnen und Autoren mit "Migrationshintergrund". Bürger-Koftis M. (ed.). Eine Sprache - viele Horizonte... Die Osterweiterung der deutschsprachigen Literatur. Porträts einer neuen europäischen Generation. Wien, Praesens Publ., 2009, pp. 239-247. (In German).
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9. Uspenskiy B. Izbrannyye trudy. T. 1. Semiotika istorii. Semiotika kul'tury [Selected Works. Vol. 1. The Semiotics of History. The Semiotics of Culture]. Мoscow, Gnozis Publ., 1994. (In Russian).
Бакши Наталия Александровна, Российский государственный гуманитарный университет.
Доктор филологических наук, лиценсиат теологии, профессор кафедры германской филологии Института филологии и истории РГГУ, директор Российско-Швейцарского учебно-научного центра, член президиума Российского союза германистов. Область научных интересов: немецкоязычная литература XIX-XXI вв., религиозная тематика в литературе, культурный трасфер, русско-немецкие связи.
E-mail: nataliabakshi@mail.ru
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4282-2606
Natalia A. Bakshi, Russian State University for the Humanities.
Doctor of Philology, licentiate of Theology, professor at the Department of German philology, Institute for Philology and History, RSUH, Director of the Russian-Swiss Centre, member of Presidium of the Russian Association of Germanists. Research area: the 19th - 21st centuries literature in German, religious themes in literature, cultural transfer, cultural relations between Russia and Germany.
E-mail: nataliabakshi@mail.ru
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4282-2606
