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11Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 2 (2015 8) 329-348
УДК 81.33
Translation of Noun Phrases With a Zero Actualizer as a Direct Object from Russian into Spanish
Enrique F. Quero Gervilla*
University of Granada Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Departamento de Filología Griega y Eslava 18071, Granada, Spain
Received 19.11.2014, received in revised form 21.12.2014, accepted 18.01.2015
The notion of definiteness/indefiniteness cannot be interpreted unambiguously in scientific literature. Theories considering the noun phrase (hereinafter - NP) with a definite article to be definite and the NP with an indefinite article or another lexeme expressing indefiniteness to be indefinite are the most frequent. However, considerations of this issue are often over-simplified, and together with this many factors, which should be taken into account under problem consideration, are left out. The aim of our work is to establish the rules which can allow us to define a corresponding equivalent in the Spanish language under the absence of the actualizer in the Russian language, while we consider the implicit means of the definiteness/indefiniteness expression on the whole. Accordingly, the results of our research show that under the development of the algorithm of the translation from the Russian language into Spanish it is essential to take into account the following factors: 1. The uniqueness of an object. 2. If an object is not unique: the expression type, the word order, the lexical and semantic category of a noun (animate/inanimate, countable/uncountable), the syntactic function. In the article we will analyze the NP in the function of a direct object.
Keywords: definiteness, indefiniteness, zero actualizer, algorithm, translation, direct object. Research area: philology.
Introduction
The notion of definiteness/indefiniteness cannot be interpreted unambiguously in scientific literature. The theories considering the noun phrase (hereafter - NP) with a definite article to be definite and the NP with an indefinite article or another lexeme expressing indefiniteness to be indefinite are the most frequent. As a rule the following methodology is used for describing the expression of the category in non-article languages with the purpose of establishing the
nature of the NP with regard to definiteness or indefiniteness: if an NP is interpreted into an article language with the help of the definite article, the NP is considered definite, and if an NP is translated into the article language with the help of the indefinite article or another lexeme expressing indefiniteness then the NP is considered indefinite. But such a consideration of the issue over-simplifies matters, and together with this many factors, which should be taken into account under problem consideration, are
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* Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected], [email protected]
omitted. It becomes especially clear under the analysis of the current discrepancies of definite article usage in article languages. For example, the expression Я люблю мороженое with the NP, playing the direct object part, is translated in different ways into different article languages: Я люблю мороженое //Me gusta el helado //1 like ice cream // Mi piace il gelato // J'aime la glace. When such expressions are distinguished this results in the difficulty for native speakers of non-article languages (including the Slavic ones). Consequently, the notion of definiteness/ indefiniteness does not have any sense without taking a context into account.
As was already mentioned in many works (see for example, Bulygina, 1997, 25), the category of definiteness/indefiniteness exists as a covert category or cryptotype (ibid. the covert categories). Among the means of expression of such a category in the Russian language there can be mentioned explicit ones (these means are connected to the use of этот, тот, кое-кто, кто-то, кто-нибудь pronouns etc.) and implicit ones like:
- the position in the sentence: Книга
лежит на полке and На полке лежит книга. We can recall here examples from the work by Restan (Restan, 1985, 475): Раскрываются почки and Концерт начинается;
- the grammatical categories of a noun: Дай воды (воду), (see Krylov 1983, Glovinskaya 1989, Gladrov 1994 for more details);
- the verb category of aspect: Он прочитал книгу // Él ha leído el libro; Oн читает книгу // Él lee un libro.
Under the zero actualizer in Russian one should understand "the actualization of an NP only by including a word into a sentence structure" (Paducheva, 1985, 85). In order to find the equivalent of the Russian zero actualizer in
the Spanish language, factors causing the use of certain equivalents should be analyzed and taken into account.
At this first stage of our work while we consider the implicit means of the definiteness/ indefiniteness expression on the whole, we should establish the rules which can allow us to define a corresponding equivalent in the Spanish language under the absence of the actualizer in the Russian language.
2. The Referential Approach to the Analysis of the Definiteness/ Indefiniteness Category
The definiteness/indefiniteness category is a referential category. The classical works of the theory of reference are directly related to the study of the above-mentioned category. There its description is based on such linguistics notions as the principles of context, collocations and interchangeability (Frege, 1997), connotative and non-connotative meanings (Mill, 1982), description theory (Russell, 1982), the difference between the notions of a "sentence" and an "expression" (Strosson, 1982). The interest in reference is determined by the factor of "the language base extension of a logical language at the expense of the inclusion into it of the day-to-day language material which is considered not only to be the thought reality but also to be a communication instrument; and also by attracting the facts related to coherent text building" (Arutyunova, 1982, 6). Within research into the Russian language the above-mentioned theories were reflected in the works by such authors as I.I. Revzin (Revzin, 1978), N.D. Arutyunova (Arutyunova, 1977, 1982, 1988), E.V. Paducheva (Paducheva, 1985), A.D. Shmelev (Shmelev, 1996).
The following major characteristics within the referential approach are mentioned: the
referent/non-referent use of a NP and the fact
whether the referent is known or unknown. We will clarify the meaning of these referential characteristics:
- under the denotative space one should understand any fragment of the extra-linguistic reality. "The denotative space, where the referent of the language expression is fixed, is considered relevant for any language expression used in speech" (Shmelev, 1996, 23);
- under the referent use one should understand such a use where the referent is fixed in a certain denotative space. The type of extra-linguistic reality outlined by the NP is an individual. (Bulygina, 1997, 113);
- under the non-referent use one should understand the use where the referent is not fixed in a certain denotative space (Shmelev, 1996, 85). The type of the extra-linguistic reality outlined by the NP is a category or an abstract individual (Bulygina, 1997, 113);
- the fact whether the referent is known or
unknown is revealed while the referent is known if before the moment of speech it was included into the speaker's denotative space, for example: Я машину вернул сегодня утром // Yo devolví el coche esta mañana; and unknown if before the moment of speech it was not included into the speaker's denotative space: Твоя сестра купила тебе книгу //Tu hermana te ha comprado un libro.
The last characteristic is relevant only if it deals with the NP with the referential nature. In our opinion, the following NP types should be distinguished:
The definite NP: it is an unambiguous referential interrelationship, known to the speaker and to the listener, in the discourse of the nomination with a single object, a person or a
number of objects and persons. "The presumption of the subject existence and uniqueness in the general field of a listener and a speaker corresponds to a nominative phrase with a definite status" (Paducheva, 1985, 87). Such an interrelationship can exist only when it comes to the referent fixed in a certain denotative space: Мы провели на вокзале два часа, и наконец поезд пришел // Estuvimos en la estación durante dos horas y por fin llegó el tren.
The indefinite NP: a referent which is fixed in a certain denotative space but is unknown to the speaker is implied in the indefinite NP: Ползет муравей, волокет соломину // Va una hormiga, que arrastra un tallo de paja. (Tolstoy «Муравей»); На конференцию приехали врачи из всех стран мира // Al congreso han venido médicos de todas las partes del mundo.
These types of the NP (definite and indefinite) can be found in the episodic expressions. "Under episodic use the predicative expressions represent such processes and events as certain ones, taking place or having taken place at a certain moment or a period of time, or describe a situation or states dedicated to a certain period of time" (Bulygina, 1997, 113).
The non-referent NP: it is an NP which denotes a certain definite notion, but not a certain referent fixed in space: Волк - дикое животное // El lobo es un animal salvaje; Человек умеет существовать в экстремальных условиях // El hombre es capaz de sobrevivir en condiciones extremas; Kaждый день к тебе приходят друзья // Todos los días vienen a verte amigos.
The non-referent NP can be found in qualificative expressions. "Under the qualificative use the predicative expressions describe the characteristics not related to a certain moment of time." (Bulygina, 1997, 118). These expressions do not describe certain events or processes. The following types of expressions with a qualificative meaning can be distinguished:
- expressions where the NP is related to the variety of its denotations (with an extension), which is called a "generic" NP (Shmelev, 1996, 64). For example:
Я люблю покупать книги // Me gusta comprar libros;
- expressions where the NP denotes the participants distributed among a certain number of typical events, which is called a "distributive" NP in the works by E.V. Paducheva (Paducheva, 1985, 95). For example: Твои коллеги по работе всегда приносят пироги // Tus compañeros de trabajo siempre traen pasteles;
- expressions with suspended assertion. For example: Маргарита Ивановна хочет купить себе новую квартиру, чтобы жить отдельно от своих родителей // Margarita Ivanovna quiere comprarse un piso nuevo para independizarse de sus padres.
3. Analysis of Formal Means Expressing Definiteness/ Indefiniteness in the Russian Language
The referential approach as the main factor in the analysis of the definiteness/indefiniteness category is not the only one. Thus, for example, there is intonation, word order, the lexical and semantic category of a noun (animate/inanimate, countable/uncountable) and its syntactic function. We will now consider the role of these factors.
3.1. Intonation
A.V. Belskiy was the first to pay attention to the fact that "Russian phrase accentuation expresses the language categories, equivalent to the distinguishing of words with a definite or an indefinite article" (Belskiy, 1956, 189). Belskiy's main provisions are developed by T.V. Nikolaeva, who proves the predominant role of intonation under the expression of a certain category in the
Russian language; along with it she distinguishes six different structures: only two of which have a neutral phase intonation. In the sentence Поезд пришел //El tren ha llegado (the verb form is stressed) it is implied that поезд is known to the speaker and, accordingly, is definite, and in the expression Пришел поезд //Ha llegado un tren it is implied that поезд is not known to the speaker and, accordingly, it is indefinite (Nikolaeva, 1982, 19).
3.2. Word Order
Definiteness/indefiniteness is related to word order because the category is directly connected to the theme and rheme relationship. An actual, new, rheme and unknown information is most probably undefined for the addressee. The noun phrases introducing "old" information fixed by the previous information or the context are known and are, consequently, defined. In other words, if an object was mentioned (actualized, referent and known), then the degree of the possibility of its use in the theme is considerably increased.
Under this scheme it turns out that such elements as word order and, correspondently, the information distribution between the given and the new (the theme and the rheme), and also taking into account the shades expressed with the help of intonation, are the factors, which should be borne in mind when the referent nature is defined from the point of view of its definiteness/ indefiniteness.
But word order is relevant only under neutral intonation. If there are no explicit indices, the NP preceding a verb in episodic expressions has a certain reference and is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the definite article (el): Поезд пришел // El tren ha llegado. At the same time the NP being in the postposition in relation to the verb form has an indefinite nature and is translated into the Spanish language with an
indefinite article un: Пришел поезд //Ha llegado un tren.
3.3. Syntactic Function
The outline of a noun group depends not only on the type of the expression but also on the syntactic function in the sentence. "Denotative statuses can be interrelated with syntax either when the syntactic position of a NP sets out certain requirements to its status or when the NP status influences its morphological outline or its surroundings" (Paducheva, 1985, 105). A similar idea can be found in the works of N.D. Arutyunova: "As far as the communicative functions are distributed (although not fully unambiguously) between the syntactic positions, it is justified to talk about the dependency of the nomination on the place occupied by it in the sentence structure" (Arutyunova, 1977, 304).
We will now consider the examples of the NP outline in the function of a subject and a direct object. Thus, in the function of a subject the uncountable nouns in predicates of episodic nature, as a rule, have a defined and referent status: Вино превратилось в уксус // El vino se ha vuelto vinagre. In the function of the direct object the uncountable nouns in the same predicates can have a defined and referent status as well as an undefined and referent status: Я мясо разморозил, не волнуйся! Теперь можно делать шашлык. // ¡No te preocupes! Ya he descongelado la carne. Ahora podemospreparar los pinchitos. The main difference is in two main elements, defining the function of a direct object: aspect and the fact if there are modal verbs which influence the function of a subject.
3.4. The Noun Category
The influence of the lexical and grammatical category of a noun can be explained by the fact that the NP of the same referential status contains different characteristics from the point of view of
the definiteness/indefiniteness depending on their lexical and semantic category. For example, in episodic phrases of a dynamic nature the countable nouns (animate and inanimate) and uncountable in the role of a direct object are translated in different ways: Maма готовит суп на ужин // Mama está preparando sopa para cenar; Папа читает книгу в соседной комнате //Papá está leyendo un libro en el cuarto de al lado; Сегодня на улице полицейские поймали вора // Ноу los policías han pillado en la calle al (a un) ladrón. The examples given show that in the episodic phrases the uncountable nouns in the function of the direct object are translated with the help of the zero article, and countable nouns - with the help of the indefinite article; the fact that the noun is "animate" is transmitted with the help of the preposition а. These processes are characteristic of the category of the number as well: under the same referential status the nouns in singular and in plural have different characteristics.
4. Nouns Denoting Objects which are Unique in Some Respect
This concerns the objects which are individual themselves in the world view of the speaker and the addressee. T. Givon defined such objects as "non-definite" (Givon, 1988).
The NP which have an unambiguous definite interpretation from the referential point of view are included in this category.
In such cases with regard to the translation into the Spanish language only the characteristic of uniqueness plays its part and the definite article is used in translation. All other factors become negligible. For example: солнце, небо, луна.
5. Restriction of the Analysis Object
In our work we restrict the study by the cases of the NP being mentioned for the first time in narrative sentences with neutral intonation. We
will now describe in more detail the restrictions chosen.
In the work we analyzed exclusively the expressions with a neutral phrase intonation, i.e. the constructions with phrase accent without accentuation. In other words, the sentences only with two types of phrase intonation out of six types specified by T.V. Nikolaeva (Nikolaeva, 1982, 19), are analyzed in this work:
Поезд пришел //El tren ha llegado.
Пришел поезд //Ha llegado un tren.
The restrictions which we introduced concern not only the intonation but also the word order. We consider to be neutral (from the point of view of the word order) expressions, i.e. such expressions where the rheme is in the end of the sentence and the theme is at the beginning. The phrases with syntactic shades (with the rheme or the rheme core in preposition) are not covered by our analysis (usually such expressions are accentuated). In other words, such expressions as Поезд пришел (It finally arrived - accentuated) and Пришел поезд (It finally arrived) are not examined in the work. We do not examine the phrases accentuated in a special way, even if the rheme is in the end: Поезд пришел (After all it came -accentuated); Пришел поезд (it is the train not anything else - also accentuated).
Narrative simple sentences are the only subject of this analysis. We did not analyze the means of the definiteness/indefiniteness expression in complex or compound sentences. It seems that the choice rules of the means of the definiteness/indefiniteness can be different for a simple and a complex or a compound sentence. For example:
Пришел поезд //Ha llegado un tren.
Пришел поезд, пoрa было прощаться. // Llego el tren, era hora de despedirse. Interrogative and exclamatory sentences are not covered by our analysis either.
Negative sentences within the narrative sentences come under special analysis.
The object of our research are non-described NP. We do not consider types like: Я не купил тебе пластинку, которую ты меня попросил // No te he comprado el disco que me pediste, containing adjectives or presubstantive sentences in the function of an object.
It is essential to note that we have taken into account the following features characterizing nouns: animate/inanimate, countable/ uncountable. Only uncountable nouns with certain semantics like мясо, сахар etc. are analyzed. Countable unspecific nouns were not analyzed either (чувство/чувства, чудо/чудеса). The categories of nouns denoting objects unique in some respect are considered separately because they are not always translated with the help of the definite article.
Abstract nouns and proper names are not covered by our analysis.
6. The Interaction of Factors
The analysis made shows that different theories which exist and establish the type of the NP from the point of view of its definiteness/ indefiniteness have an unsystematic nature and only partially solve the problem set. The specific nature of the category favours the search of another analysis method making it possible to compare languages, different from a typological point of view. The referential approach owing to its universal nature creates an essential base for category study; however, although this occupies a prominent place in research, it is not the only one.
When the equivalents are being established in these typologically different languages the main factor is whether the referent is fixed or not in a certain denotative space. However, to build an algorithm based on the criterion is hardly possible: in our opinion, in this case it is more appropriate
to rely on other linguistic characteristics of the expression, which are also connected to the definiteness and indefiniteness. Accordingly, for example, the referential status of the NP is mostly defined by the type of the expression where it can be found.
Accordingly, the results of our research show that with regard to the development of the algorithm of the translation from the Russian language into Spanish it is essential to take into account the uniqueness and vice versa of an object. In the latter the following plays a big part: the expression type, the word order, the lexical and semantic category of a noun (animate/inanimate, countable/uncountable), the syntactic function. These factors within the algorithm which we set forth interact in the following way:
1. The uniqueness of an object.
2. If an object is not unique
- expression type
- word order;
- lexical and semantic category of a noun (animate/inanimate; countable/ uncountable);
- syntactic function.
In the article we will now analyze the NP in the function of a direct object.
7. The Transmission of the Definite/
Indefinite Reference in the Function of a Direct Object
7.1. Referent Use
7.1.1. Analysis of the Function of a Direct
Object in Episodic Expressions of a
Dynamic Nature
a) The verb forms denoting "a single action in the past having reached the result"
(Glovinskaya, 1989, 100)
We will now examine the examples:
Наконец полицейские поймали вора // Por fin los policías han pillado al ladrón.
Сегодня на улице полицейские поймали вора // Hoy los policías han pillado en la calle al (a un) ladrón.
Кириллов взял письмо, прочел, положил на стол и смотрел в ожидании //Kirilov cogió la carta, la leyó y la puso en la mesa. (Dostoevsky, «Demons»).
It is obvious that definite as well as indefinite NP can play the part of a direct object. We will now pay attention to the fact that if the object is placed before the verb, then the NP has exclusively a defined nature:
Я домашнее задание сделал еще вчера // Tengo hechos los deberes desde ayer.
Наконец рядом с нашим домом дом достроили. Теперь мы сможем спать спокойно // Por fin han acabado de construir la casa que estaban contruyendo al lado de la nuestra. Ahora podemos dormir tranquilos.
The dependency between the word order and the definiteness of the NP bear the solid reasons of communicative nature.
If an object is placed in the end of the sentence then it is either the rheme of the sentence or it is included in the rheme. In the rheme the known as well as unknown NP can be found. The NP in the function of a direct object in the expressions of such a type can be interpreted as definite or indefinite only in the case the level of the object familiarity for the speaker is clear for the speaker.
The changed word order: the object before the verb, can be found only when the rheme does not affect the direct object, i.e. the object refers to the theme.
Я деньги получил еще вчера // Yo ya recibí el dinero ayer. The rheme is in the expression "еще вчера".
The NP is included in the rheme and is of an indefinite nature.
Accordingly, under the direct word order in the case of the verb form expressing "a single
action in the past having reached the result" the referent can be considered to be both definite and indefinite, and vice versa - only definite.
Паук увидел в лесу пчелу. Он остановился и, глядя на нее, сказал: я тебя съем! // Vio la hormiga a (una /la) abeja en el bosque. Se detuvo y mirándola le dijo: Te voy a comer.
Of course there are cases when it is explicitly clear that the NP can be only definite. Sometimes it is due to particular features of certain lexeme use. Accordingly, the adverb уже contributes to the feature of the NP definiteness because it contains the presumption that the action was expected. If there is such an element both under the direct and the reverse word order the referent in the expressions examined is definite,
Я уже написал письмо // Yo ya he escrito la carta.
Письмо я уже написал // Yo ya he escrito la carta.
Моя сестра уже вышила платье // Mi hermana ya ha bordado el vestido.
Сегодня утром твоя сестра вылила масло. Иди в магазин и купи еще // Esta mañana tu hermana ha derramado el aceite. Ve a la tienda y compra más.
We should note that uncharacterized NP in plural with a zero actualizer rarely can be found in the function of the direct object in postposition in relation to the verb form. They can be found only in preposition in relation to the verb form.
We cannot say *Он прочитал книги. Но можно сказать: Он прочитал все книги // Él ha leído todos los libros.
Он прочитал книги, которые я ему подарил //Él ha leído todos los libros que yo le he regalado.
b) Imperfective Verbs with a Progressive Meaning in the Present and the Past Tenses
But the rules we derived are fairly accurate for a part of the episodic expressions of a dynamic
nature. They work where the verb forms express single actions in the past which reached the result.
It is interesting that using the progressive meaning of the predicate the rule of the article choice in translation is simplified: with direct word order exclusively the indefinite NP can be found.
Идет по лесу ежик и видит белку // Va por el bosque un erizo y ve una ardilla.
With the reverse word order it is clear that in this case the rheme (the focus of the attention) is on the verb: the NP is always definite as it is in the case examined above.
И вот он пальто покупает // Mira el abrigo que se está comprando.
А Миша где? Ты его видела? Он там, во втором отделе словарь покупает // ¿Y Misha dónde está? ¿Tú lo has visto? Está allí, en la sección número dos comprando el diccionario. It should be borne in mind that we talk about a usual phrase accent without accentuation of the NP.
c) The translation into Spanish
The examples make it obvious that the nouns both countable and uncountable, in singular and in plural with a definite referential status are translated into Spanish with the help of the definite article: Хуан книгу покупает // Juan está comprando el libro; Мы книги купили в магазине на улице Горького // Nosotros compramos los libros en la tienda de la calle Gorki; and indefinite NP are translated in different ways depending on the category and the plural or singular noun form. Countable nouns in singular (animate and inanimate) are translated into the Spanish language with the help of the indefinite article un, and uncountable nouns are translated into the Spanish language with the help of the zero article. The nouns with a definite referential status in plural are translated in two ways: 0 or unos. For example:
Я покупал книги все утро // Llevo comprando libros toda la mañana.
Сегодня я купил книги //Hoy he comprado algunos(unos) libros.
Алексей покупает книги // Aleksei está comprando algunos (unos) libros.
Сегодня утром я видел ребят // Esta mañana he visto a unos muchachos.
The difference between 0 and unos is in the fact that unos points out the quantitative nature of an action with the indication of its result, and 0 more likely points out the aspect of the action performed. The first expression without the form unos Я покупал книги все утро //Llevo comprando libros toda la mañana can be understood as if the subject of the action bought one book, several books or did not buy any book. The only thing the speaker wants to say is that he was doing that. That is why because of the quantitative shade of unos it cannot be used under the non-referent nature of the object NP. It is impossible to translate into Spanish Я люблю покупать книги in the following way *Ме gusta comprar unos libros. This expression is translated like Me gusta comprar libros. For the same reason if there are adverbs expressing progressive actions, it is obligatory to use zero article and the form unos cannot be used.
Я весь день собирал цветы // He estado recogiendo flores durante toda la mañana. It sounds wrong in Spanish: * He estado recogiendo unas flores durante toda la mañana.
As it is known the Spanish language has such the characteristic feature of the preposition a which precedes the direct object expressed by a certain noun. The preposition can be not used, if a direct object is followed by an indirect object with the preposition a since there would be the possibility of confusing these objects:
Женщина отдала ребенка родителям // La mujer dejó al niño con sus padres.
As far as the word order is concerned, it should be noted that in the Spanish language in the NP in the function of the direct object is not less free then in the NP in the function of the subject. Usually the function of the direct object in the Spanish language occupies the postposition in relation to the verb form:
Иван купил книгу // Iván ha comprado (compró) un libro.
In case if the NP in the function of the direct object is in the preposition in relation to the verb form, the expression sounds irregular or acquires additional shades (i.e. it loses its neutral nature acquiring a poetical shade):
Дмитрий книгу потерял // Dmitri el libro ha perdidо.
7.2. Non-referent use
The NP with a non-referent status in the function of the direct object can be found in qualificative expressions and in expressions with suspended assertion (see the section devoted to the predicate classification for information about the term "expressions with suspended assertion").
Examples: Купи мне что-нибудь почитать! Купи газету //¡Cómprame algo para que pueda leer un poco! Cómprame una revista.
Обезьяны очень любят есть бананы //A los monos les encanta comer plátanos.
Moü брат очень любит есть кашу на завтрак // A mi hermano le encanta desayunar kasha.
Пить вино два раза в день полезно для здоровья: предотвращает риск инфаркта // Beber vino dos veces al día es bueno para la salud y previene el infarto.
In this section both NP in singular and in plural will be analyzed.
It is convenient to divide such expressions with a non-referent use into 3 groups for the analysis:
The expressions with suspended assertion:
Купи мне книгу // Cómprame un libro.
Дай воды //Dame agua.
The expressions where the NP is related to the full number of its denotations (with an extension):
Нужно водить детей в кино // Hay que llevar a los niños al cine.
Нужно беречь книги //Hay que cuidar los libros.
The expressions where the NP denotes the participants distributed among a certain number of typical events:
Он всегда покупает картошку в магазине за углом // Él siempre compra patatas en la tienda de la esquina.
We will now analyze each group.
a) The expressions with the suspended assertion
We will examine the following examples:
Купи мне что-нибудь почитать! Купи газету. //¡Cómprame algo de lectura! Cómprame una revista.
Ему плохо, дай воды // Se encuentra mal. Dale agua.
Купи хлеба к ужину // Compra pan para la cena.
Курице хочется снести яйцо //La gallina quiere poner un huevo.
Самый хороший художник в семье Михаил. Сейчас ему захотелось нарисовать пейзаж // El mejor pintor en la familia es Mijail. Ahora le ha apetecido pintar un paisaje.
Also as it happened with the NP in the episodic expressions in referent use the word order is closely connected to the definite or indefinite nature of the referent. Only the direct word order can be found in the expressions with a non-referent use. Under the reverse word order the NP has a concrete and referent nature and is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the definite article.
Не волнуйся! Учебники я куплю // ¡No te preocupes! Yo compro los manuales.
Animate and inanimate countable nouns are translated into the Spanish language with the help of the indefinite article and uncountable ones -with the help of the zero article. Uncountable nouns in the position of an object are used in the Russian language in the accusative and genitive cases. The most convincing explanation which can be given for this phenomenon is that the contrast of accusative and genitive cases is interpreted like the contrast of two meanings: a part (genitive case) and the whole (accusative case). i.e. the contrast reflects the qualificative definiteness/indefiniteness of the name. It can be considered that here we have a zero numeral with the meaning of an indefinite quantity. The resulting difference is not reflected in the translation into the Spanish language. The expression Нужно купить молока is translated into the Spanish language like Hay que comprar leche but not like *Hay que comprar algo de leche, while in the English language it is reflected: We need to buy some milk. (Krylov, 1983, 159)
As far as the NP in plural is concerned, the noun group is translated with the help of the zero article.
Сегодня я очень занят, я буду покупать продукты к ужину // Hoy estoy muy ocupado porque tengo que comprar comida para la cena.
b) Expressions where the NP is related to the full number of its denotations (with an extension)
We imply only the expressions with the verbs of imperfective aspect with a continuous meaning, where the nature-driven quality of the subject mentioned is indicated.
Моя бабушка очень любит собирать грибы в лесу // A mi abuela le gusta coger setas en el bosque.
Бразильцы едят фасоль с детства // Los brasileños comen judías desde que son pequeños.
Moe любимoe хобби - писать письма // Mi pasatiempo favorito es еscribir cartas.
Я люблю есть варенье на завтрак // Me gusta tomar mermelada para desayunar.
The following should be stipulated here: some nouns in singular act in the same way as the indicated nouns in plural.
Moü брат любит каждое утро покупать газету // A mi hermano le gusta comprar el periódico todas las mañanas.
Милиционеры любят проверять паспорт // A los policías les encanta pedir el pasaporte.
In these expressions the zero actualizer in the Russian language can be translated only with the help of the zero article or the definite article in the Spanish language. The choice of a certain form depends on the communicative organization of an expression. The rheme can include the action or the object. We will now consider both cases:
In the expressions where the object is in the rheme:
Мое любимое хобби - писать письма // Mi pasatiempo favorito es еscribir cartas.
Бразильцы едят фасоль с детства // Los brasileños comen judías desde que son pequeños.
In the Spanish language the zero article is used and the reverse word order is not possible:
Mi hobby favorito es escribir cartas But not
*Mi hobby favorito es cartas escribir.
In the expressions where the object is in the theme:
Книги нужно беречь или Нужно беречь книги - Los libros hay que cuidarlos // Hay que cuidar los libros.
In the Spanish language the definite article and the reverse word order is as natural as the direct one.
Hay que cuidar los libros // Los libros hay que cuidarlos.
In the expressions of the type любить+noun, the NP is translated with the help of the definite article:
Моя мама очень любит клубнику // A mi madre la encantan las fresas.
Я животных люблю // Me gustan los animales.
Мой брат очень любит детей // A mi hermano le gustan mucho los niños.
c) Expressions where the NP denotes the participants distributed among a certain number of typical events
Он всегда покупает книги в Доме книге. // Él siempre compra (los) libros en la Casa del Libro.
Он всегда покупает рыбу в одном и том же магазине. // Él siempre compra (el) pescado en la misma tienda.
Kaждый раз, когда он проходит мимо магазина, он покупает книгу // Siempre que pasa por la tienda compra un (algún) libro.
Он всегда покупает газеты в этом киоске // Él siempre compra las revistas en este kiosko.
Он всегда покупает журнал в восемь // Él siempre compra el periódico a las ocho.
Он всегда покупает газету, когда гуляет по городу // Él siempre compra el periódico cuando pasea por la ciudad.
Он всегда покупает хлеб в одном и том же магазине // Él siempre compra el pan en la misma tienda.
Let's formulate the rule of the choice of the definiteness means in these expressions.
The nouns in bold are translated with the help of the definite article, if there is an object in the theme:
Он всегда покупает хлеб в одном и том же магазине // Él siempre compra el pan en la misma tiendа.
Он всегда покупает газету, когда гуляет по городу // Él siempre compra el periódico
and with the help of the zero article, if the object is in the rheme (the NP is outlined as a definite one). It is clear that in this case with regard to countable nouns, un is chosen for the singular and 0 for the plural and for the uncountable - the zero article.
В этом магазине я всегда покупаю булочки. А черный хлеб здесь плохой // Yo siempre compro bollos en esta tienda. Y aquí el pan negro es malo.
Он всегда покупает книгу, когда гуляет по городу // Él siempre compra un libro cuando pasea por la ciudad.
В этой таверне я всегда беру пиво // Yo siempre bebo cerveza en esta taberna. d) Negative expressions If there is a negation, the following cases should be distinguished:
А) The expressions with verbs denoting "a single action in the past having reached the result". We can find perfective verbs as well as those of imperfective aspect.
Examples: Я eще не послушал пластинку. Ты можешь мне оставить ее еще на два дня? // Yo todavía no he oído el disco. ¿Me lo puedes dejar otros dos días?
Я не закончил работу. Ты можешь зайти попозже? //No he acabado el trabajo. ¿Puedes pasarte más tarde?
Such a meaning can be found with regard to negation in episodical expressions.
We shall now formulate the rules of the translation of the NP in the position of the direct object in negative expressions with the verbs expressing "a single action in the past having reached the result". First of all we should note that the rule of the NP outline in this case also depends on the rheme of the expression. If there is an action in the rheme, and the NP, correspondingly, takes up the theme of the expression, then the
NP is definite and is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the definite article.
Я не посмотрел фильм. Можешь мне его оставить еще на один день? // No he visto la película. ¿Me la puedes dejar un día más?
Сегодня я был в библиотеке и не взял книгу // Hoy he estado en la biblioteca y no he cogido el libro.
Я фильмы не посмотрел // No he visto las películas.
If there is an object in the rheme, then the NP is oulined as an indefinite one (un for countable nouns and 0 for countable). For example:
Он так и не купил машину //Al final no se ha comprado un coche.
После смерти жены он разбогател. Но так и не купил новую квартиру// A la muerte de su mujer se hizo rico, pero sin embargo no se compró un piso nuevo.
B) Expressions with verbs in continuous meaning:
Я никогда не готовлю борщ // Yo nunca hago borsh.
Moя сестра не любит чистить лук //A mi hermana no le gusta pelar cebolla.
У нас в общежитии студенты очень любят смотреть приключенческие фильмы // En nuestra residencia a los estudiantes les gusta mucho ver películas de aventuras.
За четыре года он ни разу не написал письма родителям // En cuatro años nunca le ha escrito una carta a sus padres.
In these expressions the NP is related to all the number of its denotations (with an extension).
There the position of the zero actualizer both for countable and for uncountable nouns is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the zero article as well. Meanwhile the countable nouns are used exclusively in the plural.
Я не люблю смотреть фильмы // No me gusta ver películas.
Я не ем груши // Yo no como peras.
Иван не любит полицейских // A Iván no le caen bien los policías.
A special category of cases consists of the expressions where the negation is introduced with the word никогда. In Spanish here it is possible to use the singular and plural forms.
Я никогда не писал письма // Yo nunca he escrito cartas или yo nunca he escrito una carta.
Я никогда не сдавал вещи в багаж // Nunca meto cosas en el maletero или Yo nunca meto una cosa en el maletero.
C) If there is no action at the very moment. In these expressions those actions are implied which are not being performed at the very moment. In these expressions countable nouns in the singular are translated into Spanish with the help of the indefinite article, and uncountable nouns and animate nouns in the plural are translated with the help of the zero article.
Нет, сегодня я не смотрел фильм // No, hoy no he visto una película.
Сегодня я не видел студентов на факультете. Может быть, объявили забастовку? // Hoy no he visto estudiantes en la biblioteca. ¿Es posible que se hayan puesto en huelga?
Я только что тебе позвонил, но никто не брал трубку. Что ты делал? Смотрел фильм? Нет, я не смотрел фильм, я делал домашнее задание // Acabo de llamarte y nadie cogía el teléfono. ¿Qué estabas haciendo? ¿Estabas viendo una película? No, no estaba viendo una película; estaba haciendo los ejercicios.
Чтобы лук не горчил, можно обдать его кипятком // Para que la cebolla no pique hay que echarle en agua hirviendo.
In this case the word order is connected to the definiteness/indefiniteness of the NP. Under the direct word order the NP is of an indefinite
nature and negates the fact of the action being performed.
Нет, сегодня я не смотрел фильм, я читал книгу // No yo no he estado viendo una película, yo estaba leyendo un libro.
In this case the change of the singular into plural of the inanimate nouns here is possible:
Нет, сегодня я не смотрел фильмы, я читал книги.
The latter expression is wrong for the Spanish language, but sometimes it can be used in the vernacular.
Under the definite nature of the NP the speaker usually chooses the reverse word order: Я фильм не смотрел // Yo no he visto la película.
Accordingly, under the direct word order the NP bears a non-referent nature: Я не смотрел фильм // Yo no estaba viendo una película, and under the reverse one the NP bears a referent nature: Я фильм не смотрел // Yo no estaba viendo la película.
7.3. The Opposition of the Accusative and Genitive cases with regard to the Expression of Definiteness/ Indefiniteness in the Function of the Direct Object 7.3.1. Referent use
In narrative affirmative expressions with the noun phrases in the referent use, we found an interesting characteristic feature connected to the use of the uncountable nouns and nouns expressing a great number of qualititatively various objects (огурцы, креветки, раки, крабы, маслины, помидоры). Let's compare them:
Мама купила свежую рыбу // Mamá ha comprado pescado fresco.
We should note that both options - the accusative and genitive cases - have the same meaning. But it refers only to the cases when the NP has an indefinite and referent nature.
With regard to the definite and referent nature of the NP, only the accusative case is possible. One thing, which can confirm it, is that the genitive case is not possible if the object is placed before the verb (it must be recalled that only objects with a definite status occupy the position before the verb).
А мясо я купил! Не волнуйся!
The rules of translation into the Spanish language can be formulated in the following way: if the noun phrase is placed after a predicate, then different translations are possible (еШ) depending on the fact if the NP is definite or indefinite.
Анна купила креветки //Anna ha comprado (las)(0) gambas.
And under the reverse word order the NP is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the definite article (е!). In such a way the contrast between the acusative and the genitive cases is performed in translation. If there are nouns in the genitive case the NP has an indefinite and referent nature and is translated into the Spanish language with the help of the zero article.
Пиво я купил. А водку принесет Игорь // La cerveza la he comprado yo y el vodka lo trae Igor.
7.3.2. Non-referent use
The following meanings are contrasted:
1. The negation of the fact that the object denoted by the noun exists.
2. The negation of the action in relation to a certain referent. The latter meaning is mentioned in a number of works touching upon these problems (Glovinskaya 1986, Krylov 1983, Gladrov 1994). The authors of these works mention that the meaning can be found exclusively in negative expressions. M.Ya. Glovinskaya formulates it in the following way: "Phrases with accusative and genitive cases when in negation and within the same actual meaning of a verb have different meanings..."
(Glovinskaya, 1976, 274). The word order and intonation rules described before constitute the characteristic feature of the meaning (Krylov, 1983, 153-154). With regards to the translation into Spanish we find out that the NP with countable nouns in the singular in the genitive case are translated with the help of the indefinite article; and the NP with uncountable nouns are translated with the help of the zero article. The NP in the accusative are translated into the Spanish language with the help of the definite article. The expressions with the NP in the form of the genitive case have a non-referent nature (the existence of the objects indicated is negated), and the expressions with the NP in the form of nominative have a referential nature (they are used in relation to a certain referent). Он не ел груши //Él no comía peras Он не ел грушу // Él no se comió la pera (see Glovinskaya 1976, 274)
Там книги негде поставить //Ahí no hay donde poner el libro.
Там книгу негде поставить // No hay ningún sitio donde poner el libro.
The NP with countable nouns in the plural are translated with the help of the zero article:
Рубашек я не купил // No he comprado camisas.
8. Conclusions
The main content of the work is connected to the detailed study of the transmission of the definite/indefinite reference and the non-referent NP in the Russian language (where the category of the definiteness/indefiniteness is covert); and the contrastive study of the NP outline in the Russian and Spanish languages. In the thesis study a certain algorithm of the translation into the Spanish language of the NP with a zero actualizer in the Russian language (under the first indication in a text) is developed and described in detail.
From the algorithm development in the work it is offered to rely not on the referential characteristics of the NP but on other linguistic characteristics which, as it is shown in the work, are connected to the definiteness and indefiniteness of the NP.
The results of our research show that under the development of the algorithm of the translation from Russian into Spanish the fact that three main factors are being taken into account simultaneously in perspective: the type of the expression, the syntactic function in the sentence and the word order.
In the work it is shown clearly for the first time how exactly the definiteness/indefiniteness of the NP depends on the type of the predicate where it is used. It is shown in the work that the speaker chooses different types of definiteness/ indefiniteness expression in the episodic expressions of a dynamic and static nature in qualificative expressions.
In the work it is shown clearly for the first time how exactly the definiteness/indefiniteness
of the NP is connected to its syntactic position in the expression.
The work considerably develops the idea of the connection between the definiteness/ indefiniteness category and the word order in the Russian language. The description of the definiteness/indefiniteness category in the thesis research is closely connected to the study of the mechanism of communicative task realization.
For the first time the idea of the NP outline with the help of the definiteness/indefiniteness indices is connected to the linguistic notion of frame. The cases when the primary nomination is shaped as a recurrent one were described (and were given a clear explanation): a corresponding NP is used for the first time and is actualized as a definite one.
9. Algorithms for translation of noun phrases with a zero actualizer as a direct object from Russian into Spanish
The Function of a Direct Object (Referent Use)
Episodic Expressions
Verb forms which express a Single action in the past having reached the result
Direct Word Order | | Singula~
Countable
Uncountable
Animate Definite a el/ un
Inanimate Indefinite el/ un
The genitive 0
case
(indefinite)
The accusative 0/el
case
(definite/indefi
nite)
Episodic expressions of a dynamic nature
| Plural
| Countable
Animate definite/ a los /
indefinite unos
Inanimate
def/indef
los/ unos
Singular definite el
| The reverse word order Plural indefinite los
The progressive meaning
The direct word order
Animate Indefinite a un
| Countable Inanimate Indefinite un
/
1 Singular 1 Uncountable The accusative case (indefinite) 0
- The genitive case (indefinite) 0
| Plural Animate
Inanimate
0 / unos
Reverse word order Singular el
Plural los
The Function of a Direct Object (Non-referent use)
Qualificative expressions
Qualificative expressions Expressions where the NP is related to the full number of its denotations (with an extension) \ Expressions where the object is in the rheme
Expressions where the object is in the theme
Expressions where the
NP denotes the
participants distributed
among a certain
number of typical
events
0/el
los
Expressions where the object is in the rheme Singular Countable un
Uncountable 0
| Plural |___[Ô
Expressions where the object is in the theme Singular Countable el
Uncountable | el
| Plural |-QÔT
Negative expressions
Singular
Negative expressions Expressions with verbs .denoting "a single action in the past having reached the result" Plural
el
los
Singular Uncountable 0
Expression with the verbs in continuous meaning Plural Animate los
Inanimate 0
Singular Countable - un
* No action at the very moment Direct word order Plural TTnmiintable 0
-► 0
Reverse word order Singular/Plural el/los
References
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3. Belskiy A.V. "Intonation as the Means of Determination and Prediction in the Russian Literary Language" ("Intonatsia kak sredstvo determinirovania i preditsirovania v russkom literaturnom yazyke" in Research on the Syntax of the Russian Literary Language). Moscow: Nauka, 1956, p. 188-199., in Russian.
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Перевод именных групп с нулевым актуализатором в функции прямого дополнения с русского языка на испанский
Энрике Федерико Керо Хервилья
University of Granada Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Departamento de Filología Griega y Eslava 18071, Granada, Spain
Понятие определенности-неопределенности не имеет однозначной трактовки в научной литературе. Наиболее распространенными являются теории, в которых определенной считается именная группа (далее - ИГ) с определенным артиклем, а неопределенной - ИГ с неопределенным артиклем или с любой другой лексемой, выражающей неопределенность. Цель данной работы - установить правила, позволяющие определить соответствующий эквивалент в испанском языке при условии отсутствия актуализатора в русском, рассматривая имплицитные способы выражения определенности-неопределенности в русском языке в совокупности. Результаты нашего исследования показывают, что при разработке алгоритма перевода с русского языка на испанский необходимо учитывать следующие факторы: 1. Уникальность предмета. 2. Если предмет не уникален: тип высказывания, порядок слов, лексико-семантический разряд существительного (одушевленность-неодушевленность; исчисляемость-неисчисляемость), синтаксическую функцию. В данной статье анализируются именные группы в функции прямого дополнения.
Ключевые слова: определенность, неопределенность, нулевой актуализатор, алгоритм, перевод, прямое дополнение.
Научная специальность: 10.00.00 - филологические науки.
