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TRANSLATION HISTORIOGRAPHY1
T. Gurçaglar
Bogaziçi University, Bebek, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey York University, Glendon College, 2275 Bayview Ave, North York, ON M4N 3M6, Canada
Submitted on April 30, 2021 doi: 10.5922/2225-5346-2022-1-1
The article offers an overview of the development of translation history during the past decade. It focuses on recent debates, research areas and methodological avenues in translation history with special emphasis on interdisciplinarity. Driven by a move away from a Eurocentric view of translation, researchers have become interested in producing connected and comparative histories of translation. The dialogue with the general field of history has led to the adoption of new methods and forms of analysis, such as microhistory, histoire croisée, archival research, oral history and digital translation history, and to the birth of new areas of research such as the role of translation in conflict and war.
Keywords: translation history, interdisciplinarity, archives, microhistory, connected history
Translation as a product, process and concept has recently been subject to a great deal of attention. Researchers in many parts of the world and in various cultures set out to 'write' the way translation played a role in the evolution of culture, arts, science, political ties and even wars by using a variety of methods and tools. The growing interest can be traced through international conferences on translation history, the recent establishment of a dedicated summer school at the University of Vienna, and the launch of the translation history journal Chronotropos. There are now three book series exclusively focusing on translation history by Routledge, Palgrave, and Franz Steiner Verlag. Translation studies also entered a process of looking at its own history with a higher degree of self-reflexively and set out to "histori-cize" translation knowledge (D'hulst and Gambier 2018).
As translation historiography branches out into various subfields, some epistemological and methodological complexities continue to concern researchers. One of the main challenges inherent in 'translation history' stems from the ambivalence of both concepts. As a cluster concept (Tymoczko 2006), 'translation' escapes a neat definition, especially across different time periods and regions, while the concept of 'history' refers to both the actual 'history' of translation events and the study of the way translation history has been written, i.e. translation historiography (Woodsworth 1998, p. 101). The intention of the present overview is not to offer any historical findings
© Gurcaglar §.T., 2022
1 Sections of this paper were previously published in Carmen Millan and Francesca Bartina (eds.) Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies, Routledge, 2013. I acknowledge the publisher who kindly granted me permission to reproduce parts of the article.
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pertaining to translation, but rather focus on some of the ways in which these findings have been gathered, assembled, and mobilized in the writing of narratives about translation.
1. Translation History versus History
The specific reasons for engaging in translation history vary from one researcher to another, which also determines the topics they take up and the methodologies they opt for. Therefore, it is sounder to refer to 'histories of translation' rather than a single and uniform History of Translation. The multiplicity of sources and historical contexts that need to be explored has made translation historians aware of the need to reach out to methods used in the discipline of history and to define their position in the larger field of history. Rundle argues that translation historians need to look beyond the immediate translation events, that is singular cases, and see how transla-tional phenomena can be better embedded in historical contexts in their specificity to serve as sources for historical knowledge (2012; Rundle and Rafael 2016). Rundle also draws attention to the clash between the tendency of translation historians to focus on constants and similarities, and the efforts of historians that often look for difference in each historical context.
2. Key areas in focus in Translation History
Early work in general translation history dates back to Edmond Cary's history of 'great French translators' (Cary 1963). Works of a general nature followed this publication throughout the 1970s and 1980s and a brief list includes works by Steiner (1975), Kelly (1979), Berman (1984), Ballard (1992), Vermeer (1992), Robinson (1997). Since the 1980s a number of developments have enabled an increased focus on the history of the practice of translation, rather than translation theory. This has partly been due to the development of the Polysystem approach to translation (Even-Zohar 1979), followed by the emergence of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS — often referred to as historical-descriptive translation studies) (Toury 1995). The thrust of DTS led to an abundance of historical case studies on different cultures, periods and translational agents which have also caused a concern that they remain largely disconnected and create the "danger of accumulating a vast archive of heterogeneous case studies that no translation scholar can realistically have the expertise to understand or appreciate as a whole" (Rundle 2012:236). Researchers have started contemplating the possibility of carrying out comparative studies in translation history, although comparison is fraught by numerous problems, such as the difficulty of identifying units of comparison and avoiding overgeneralizations (Van Doorslaer 2017). Nevertheless, various comparative historical studies on translation have taken place and mostly been organized diachronically, comparing different time periods in mostly fixed geographical areas (China, Spanish America, Turkey, etc.) or thematic subjects (such as censorship, conflict, translation of science, retranslation, etc.), although these were mostly of a referential nature, where one of the entities in the comparison acts as a point of reference (Valdeón
2018). Batchelor and Harding's 2017 study on the translations of Frantz Fan-on's Les Damnés de la terre (1961) across multiple geographical and linguistic landscapes is a pioneer in terms of its depth and breadth. Tackling eight different historical contexts, the book is positioned within histoire croisée by its editors, straddling transfer studies and comparative history (Batchelor 2017: 5). Another significant contribution to translation history with a global reach is The World Atlas of Translation, which has a wide geographical, historical and linguistic scope and may be considered an 'anti-comparison' (Gambier and Stecconi 2019). The editors of this large-scale project set out to compile a survey of translation in the world with the purpose of exploring whether a cross-cultural notion of translation existed. While such a collective notion did not emerge out of the 21 chapters of the book, the careful consideration of the geographical regions, the identification of traditions and the adoption of a bottom-up approach to research forms a model for future work for exploring different translation traditions comparatively, yet on their own terms. In the meantime, some major language-based projects in translation history have also been published in recent years, including five volumes of The Oxford History of Literary Translations in English (2005—2010), four volumes of the history of translations into French (Histoire des traductions en langue française) (2012—2019) and the history of translated literary (2 volumes) and non-fictional translation into Finnish (Suomennoskirjallisuuden historia 2007, and Suomennetun Tietokirjallisuuden 2013).
A general overview of specific historical studies undertaken by translation researchers shows that the nation-state was an initial (practical, yet problematic) tool of geographical delineation as researchers dealt with the history of translation and interpreting in Canada (Delisle 1987), Ireland (Cronin 1996), India (Niranjana 1992), China (Cheung 2006; Lung 2011), and Turkey (Tahir Gûrçaglar 2008), among others. A handful of works have entailed the translation histories of alternative localities such as regions (Simon 1989) or continents (Bastin 2004; Bandia 2005). Largely triggered by the challenges raised against Eurocentric thinking in the humanities and social sciences, translation history has broadened its global scope and has been reaching out to translation histories of non-western cultures for the past two decades. The first editions of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (1998, 2009) pioneered in offering a glimpse of the historical translation activities in various regions of the world, mostly based on the nation-states but also including entries, which reflect larger traditions, such as the African tradition, Arabic tradition and the Hebrew tradition. The historical overviews have not been reprinted in the third edition of the Encyclopedia in 2019 but are available on the publisher's translation studies portal.
Among various regions under focus in the 21st century, China appears to be one of the leading areas of research. Growing interest in China's translation traditions and practices has resulted in innumerable studies, articles and book chapters covering a broad range of interests from the translation of science to the history of film translation in China. Several collective volumes or monographs have appeared in English. Among those, Martha Cheung's two volumes on historical discourses on translation in China proved to have a groundbreaking impact on creating a scholarly exchange between Chinese and Western ideas on translation (Cheung 2006; Neather 2017). Cheung's
work on the anthology also occasioned the evolution of Cheung's unique method of doing translation history: 'The pushing hands approach', which seeks to create a dialogue between the past and the present (Cheung 2012; Robinson 2016). Rachel Lung (2011) has approached Chinese translation history from the perspective of interpreting, starting her investigation with the earliest mentions of interpreting in archival records in the 1st century AD and covering a wide range of interpreter mediated activities and agents during the first millennium, including guides, envoys and multilingual individuals belonging to various local cultures of the region. Several other book-length studies with an exclusive focus on Chinese translation history have been published in English such as Chan (2010), on the history of reception of translated British novels in China in the 19th-21st centuries, St. André and Hsiao-yen (2012), on the transfer of concepts and knowledge and the images transmitted through translation in China's contacts with other cultures, Hill (2013) on Lin Shu (1852—1924), a prolific translator who was pivotal in introducing Western literature in China, Heijns (2021), on the career and output of Henri Borel (1869—1933), the Dutch sinologist and translator, Huang (2019) a post-colonial critique of the role of translation and translators in China's encounters with the West in the late Qing period, and Gerber and Qi (2021) on the literary translation landscape in China during the course of the last one hundred years. There has also been a surge of interest in the translation histories of other countries in Asia-Pacific such as Japan (Torikai 2009; Levy 2011; Clements 2015; Wakabayashi 2012, 2019a, 2019b and Sato-Rossberg and Wakabayashi 2012), Korea (Kang and Wakabayashi 2019) and the Philippines (Mojares 2017; Sales 2018, 2019 that build on the work of Rafael 1988, 2006). Eastern Europe (Popa 2018; Pokorn 2012) and Russia (Baer 2016; Kamovnikova 2019) have also become more visible in translation historiography.
Apart from the diversifying geographical focus of translation historiography, the field has also started to engender more specialized histories of translation and interpreting. Among those, interpreting, audiovisual translation, retranslation and war and trauma have become foci of interest and developed into areas with their specific interdisciplinary frameworks and methodologies.
During the past two decades, the emphasis on the translator and the notion of agency in translation has started gaining ground. In line with this rising interest, various studies on individual translators have been published. Among those, the pioneer is Translators Through History (Delisle and Woodsworth 1995) followed by works by Pym (1998, 2000; Rizzi, Lang and Pym 2019) who called for and practiced a 'translator history' where translators, not texts or institutions, are the main agents of history. Various contributions in Milton and Bandia (2009) and Kinnunen and Koskinen (2010) show that translators and other translational agents (such as editors, publishers or patrons) have now become preferred objects of study for many translation historians. In fact, it may be safely argued that the sociological approach that foregrounds the individual agency of translators/interpreters in a dynamic relationship with their context has been mainstreamed into most of the recent translation historiography.
The history of interpreting has been one of the most productive areas of research during the second decade of the 21st century. As exemplified by the
contributions to Takeda and Baigorri-Jalón (2016), interpreting history is explored from many different perspectives and positions. The periods and spaces studied range from ancient China (Lung 2011), early modern Ottoman Empire (Rothman 2021), the Spanish colonization of the Americas (Val-deón 2014) to the Habsburg Monarchy (Wolf 2015a). The knowledge generated, as well as the different methodologies employed by the individual studies, are truly impressive. One common area of interest for researchers of interpreting history appears to be the investigation of periods or settings that are defined by conflict and trauma, which has also become an interdisciplinary contact point between researchers in interpreting and war history who both argue that co-presence of multiple languages in situations of conflict and war is not a marginal issue, but a central fact that must be tackled head on (Footitt and Kelly 2012; Kujamaki and Footitt. 2016; Tesseur 2019). Interpretation during the Second World War, the Nazi concentration camps and the post-war trials have been receiving a great deal of attention from scholars (Takeda 2010; Baigorri-Jalon 2014; Wolf 2016; Tryuk 2015; Kujamaki 2016; Kujamaki and Pasanen 2019). Framing the Interpreter: Towards a Visual Perspective stands out as a unique contribution to the field (Fernández-Ocampo and Wolf 2014) as it brings together articles that tackle the visual representation of war interpreters and open up a new methodological avenue for research.
The history of translation in authoritarian regimes has also started to be researched systematically. Italy under Mussolini, Hitler's Germany, Franco's Spain and Portugal under Salazar have provided a great deal of material for researchers interested in the history of translation under fascism (Rundle and Sturge 2010; Rundle 2010, 2018a). The TRACE research group continues to investigate practices of censorship in Spain throughout the 20th century ("TRACE: traducción y censura"). There is also a range of studies carried out on translation in East Europe under communism, including the contexts of DDR, Yugoslavia and Russia, to mention a few (Thomson-Wohlgemuth 2009; Baer 2011; Pokorn 2012; Kamovnikova 2019; Popa 2018).
The history of audiovisual translation was a latecomer in the field but has been steadily growing in recent years, mostly with a focus on film translation (O'Sullivan and Cornu 2019). Admittedly, studies on the history of audiovisual translation are scattered in different disciplines and cultures, and Gambier and Jin (2019) have called for a connected history of audiovisual translation that will rise up to potential methodological challenges.
3. Methodologies in Translation Historiography
Pym (1992: 8) indicated four epistemological shortcomings in translation history: '(1) archeological accumulation of data that respond to no explicitly formulated problematic, (2) dependence on anecdotal evidence, (3) arbitrary periodisation, and (4) reluctance to see translations as possible agents rather than expressions of historical change.' These are the very points, which translation historians have attempted to address in their search for various methodologies in historical research.
In his quest to create a translator focused approach to translation, Pym (1998: 5—8) divides translation history into translation archeology, historical criticism and explanation to create a framework for exchange and collaboration.
D'hulst has offered an array of possible areas of research for translation historians in the form of a series of questions, including Who? What? Where? With whose help? Why? How? When? With what effect? (D'hulst 2007: 1071; 2001: 24 — 30; 2010: 399 — 403). These questions include all three aspects mentioned by Pym and go further than compiling lists or catalogues and require an interpretive framework. Although he admits that 'this list of questions does not constitute a research programme, neither does it want to be exhaustive; it wants to show what should be covered by a historiography of translation and translation studies,' (2001, pp. 31), D'hulst's set of questions identify a series of study objects as well as ways of approaching them. In that sense, the list can be of practical use for researchers planning to launch historical inquiries about translation and through proper framing and exploration, they can remedy some of the shortcomings mentioned by Pym.
There are various methodological issues that still need to be addressed by translation historians. One such issue is periodization. Some historians work according to political or social periodization, which largely reflects a western-bias, while some others introduce chronological divisions based on diverging approaches to translation (Foz 2006). Creating a universal periodi-zation for translation history would be an impossible and undesirable task, so each historian is faced with two challenges in deciding on a periodization: his/her subjective vision of the particular historical phenomenon under study and the particularities of the relevant period and culture. Temporality is another methodological challenge, which can be linked to the issue of pe-riodization. Depending on their goals and the methods they select, translation historians will decide on whether they will opt for a short-term, long-term or meso-view of their chosen subject (Rundle 2018b; Wakabayashi 2019c). Other time-related questions include culture-related notions of time, risk of anachronism and recency bias for studies focusing on recent history (Wakabayashi 2019c).
The timescale chosen by a researcher will be defined by whether they adopt a macro or micro view of their research object. Studies that focus on the individuals and their everyday experiences will require a more intensive and small-scale observation. This type of approach is known as microhistory (Ginzburg 1980). It is a type of history from below that does not concern itself with the grand narratives and prefers a focused view of the human experience (Adamo 2006). Microhistory is empirically grounded; it challenges or refines generalizations and has emphasis on the agency of individuals (Wakabayashi 2018a). Microhistory is not limited to the study of individual translators and can be employed in the study of any translation-related phenomenon embedded in its historical context on a micro-scale. However, mi-crohistory should not be confused with the micro approach, or the case study methodology, that is widely used in translation historiography (Run-dle 2018b: 239). Rundle argues that few studies in translation history directly
use microhistory as a methodology, mostly because they are often committed to foregrounding the significance of translators and translation in their historical accounts, which does not agree with the "anti-anachronistic stance" of microhistory (ibid.). Microhistory may not serve one's goals if the intention is to explore a more complex and longer-term event. This is why translation historians have increasingly started to turn to histoire croisée as a complementary methodology.
Connected history has been proposed as an approach to studying diffuse and fluid exchanges that escape neat compartmentalization. As translations and translators are dynamic entities that often operated across cultures and languages, their study clearly benefits from relational historical approaches such as the one represented by connected history (Wakabayashi 2018b). Entangled, or shared history are also concepts that are compatible with the type of multidirectional cultural movements that translators and other cultural mediators have been engaged in. Histoire croisée goes further than the flexibility and dynamism of connected, or entangled, history. It also involves the observer's position and "constructs a specific relationship between the observer's position, the perspective, and the historical object. In so doing, the moment of crossing becomes an active occurrence and can be viewed as the result of historical and present processes" (Wolf 2015b: 229). In their study on translations of Frantz Fanon, Batchelor and Harding (2017) employ both microhistory and histoire croisée and find these two approaches compatible for their framework. Batchelor (2017: 6) argues that their study is an example of histoire croisée as it emphasizes geo-historical crossings and starts out inductively from the research object that is translations of Fanon, which also makes it a form of microhistory.
The focus on the significance of archival sources in translation historiography has increased as it became clear that they provide a unique vantage point to the working and living conditions of translators and help foreground the translator's agency (Paloposki 2017). Archival material can involve any personal or public documents preserved at an institution or in a private collection, for the purposes of translation history. These can entail a wide range of materials including draft translations, correspondences with publishers, diaries and personal papers, etc. To these, Munday also adds oral interviews and testimonies, which are not always found acceptable by historians due to their mediated nature (Munday 2014). Another form of material available in archives is visual material; photographs and video footage, which currently remains underexplored in translation historiography except Fernandez-Ocampo and Wolf's 2014 study.
A rarer but equally rich form of historical source that may be used by translation researchers are interviews, yet not all interviews constitute oral history. Interviews to be included in oral history need to be in-depth, retrospective and conducted for the purpose of being preserved in an archive (McDonough Dolmaya 2018: 267). In her pioneering article on the use of oral history in translation studies, McDonough Dolmaya (2015) raises a number of pertinent questions that translation historians must consider and also draws attention to the importance of archiving recorded interviews which
provides the possibility of further analysis of interview materials. A critical analysis of interviews requires knowledge of tools of analysis for memory and narrative performance (McDonough Dolmaya 2015: 210).
The availability of electronic sources has had a transformative effect on translation research. The Translation Studies Bibliography (TSB) by John Benjamins and BITRA (Bibliography of Interpreting and Translation) by the University of Alicante offer up to date digital information about publications in the field. There are also various bibliographies of translated words available for public use. The website of the research group working on the history of translation in Latin America (HISTAL) offers a bibliography of works on translation history, not limited to the history of Latin America (Bastin 2004). These sources create a point of departure for bibliometric studies that reveal trends and patterns in the publication of translations and discourses on translations (Zhou and Sun 2017).
A significant development in translation history that has not yet made itself fully visible is the arrival of the tools of digital humanities. Waka-bayashi (2019d) points out the potential of digital tools for translation history and defines the goals of digital translation history as supporting conventional research, revealing new and more data that may help revise previous assumptions, generating new research questions and new modes of presentation and facilitating teamwork and public engagement (2019d: 132). Among other advantages, digital media increase the capacity of research frameworks, make data accessible, save time, offer flexibility, diversity, and interactivity (Wakabayashi 2019d: 134). Wakabayashi also presents a number of digital tools that are already in use and may be adopted by researchers, such as the Reading Experience Database (RED) related to distant reading, text analysis tools available as DIRT (Digital Research Tools), visualization tools, and spatial analysis tools. She concludes her article by noting that digital resources "can add a dimension to how we understand translation history," yet cannot be a replacement for critical thinking (2019d: 143). A major research project in translation history that makes use of the tools of digital humanities is the Genealogies of Knowledge project based at the University of Manchester and funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council in the UK (2016—2020). Researchers involved in the project investigate two strands of concepts and their evolution through translation during the past 2500 years in Greek, Latin, medieval Arabic and modern English. To trace the evolution of concepts, the study makes use of Corpus Translation Studies to build electronic corpora in these four languages (Wenjing and Guosheng 2021).
Translation history has evolved rapidly in terms of its scope, themes, and methods in the 21st century. This is evidenced by the recent development of formal structures for translation history, such as the summer school in translation history, the journal Chronotopos and the network of scholars working to make translation history visible, accessible at https://historyan dtranslation.net/. The field appears committed to interdisciplinary dialogue and collaboration and promises diverse avenues of research for translation studies and beyond.
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>
§.T. Gûrçaglar
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Zhou, Xi. and Sun S., 2017. Bibliography-based quantitative translation history. Perspectives, 25 (1), pp. 98—119.
Dr §ehnaz Tahir Gûrçaglar, Department of Translation and Interpreting Studies, Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
To cite this article:
Gûrçaglar, Ç. T. 2022, Translation Historiography, Slovo.ru: baltic accent, Vol. 13, no. 1, p. 14-31. doi: 10.5922/2225-5346-2022-1-1.
Босфорский университет, Бебек, 34342 Стамбул, Турция
Йоркский Университет, Глендон-колледж Канада ОЫ М4Ы 3М6, Норт-Йорк, Бейвью эвенью, 2275 Поступила в редакцию 30.04.2021 г. ао1: 10.5922/2225-5346-2022-1-1
В статье представлен обзор последнего десятилетия истории перевода. Особое внимание уделяется новым научным темам и областям исследования, а также методологическим направлениям истории перевода с акцентом на их междисциплинар-ность. Отказавшись от евроцентристского взгляда на предмет истории перевода как науки, исследователи заинтересовались разработкой взаимосвязанных компаративных историй перевода. Исследовательский диалог с историей в широком смысле дал новые методы и формы анализа: микроисторию, histoire croisée, архивные исследования, устную историю и цифровую историю перевода. Кроме того, возникли такие новые области исследования, как, например, изучение роли перевода во время конфликтов и военных действий.
Ключевые слова: история перевода, междисциплинарность, архивы, микроистория, перекрестная история
The author
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ИСТОРИОГРАФИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДОВЕДЕНИЕ
Ш. Т. Гюрчаглар
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Об авторе
Д-р Шехназ Тахир Гюрчаглар, профессор кафедры письменного и устного перевода, Босфорский университет (университет Богазичи), Стамбул, Турция.
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Для цитирования:
Гюрчаглар Ш. Т. Историография и переводоведение // Слово.ру: балтийский акцент. 2022. Т. 13, № 1. С. 14—31. doi: 10.5922/2225-5346-2022-1-1.
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