CC BY
117
UDC 635.658:631.527:581.19
TO THE PROBLEM OF BIOFORTIFICATION AND DIVERSIFICATION OF LENTIL CROP
Kondykov I.V.
Candidate of Agricultural Sciences Ikonnikov A.V., Research Assistant All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel City, Russia
E-mail: info@vniizbk.ru
Chuvasheva E.S., Candidate of Biological Sciences Orel State University, Orel City, Russia
Kirsanova E.V., Candidate of Agricultural Sciences Dmitrieva E.A., Post-graduate Student Amelin A.V., Doctor of Agricultural Sciences Orel State Agrarian University, Orel City, Russia
ABSTRACT
In the review the lentil role as the most valuable pulse crop for consumers is shown. It is noticed that biochemical structure of lentil grain leads it to the class of irreplaceable dietary products used both in daily ration, and in medical, children's and vegetarian food. Directions of biofortification and consumer diversification of crop are specified.
KEY WORDS
Lentil; Crop; Biochemical structure; Biofortification; Consumer diversification; Breeding; Varieties.
Lentil (Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris) is one of the most popular grain legumes, demand or it is continuously increasing. The increase of lentil consumption is considerably ahead of the relative growth of the world population. In 1960-s lentil world production corresponded to about 1 mln tons at the population of 3,3 bln people. Now 6,7 bln people live on the Earth who produce and consume about 4 mln tons of lentil. This kind of condition is not typical for the majority of other leguminous crops. It is supposed that by 2030 lentil consumption will be doubled [55].
The main lentil producers are Canada (1947 thous. t), India (900 thous. t) and Turkey (447,4 thous. t) [36]. Russia being at the beginning of the XX century the world leader in this crop grain production, in 2010 occupied only 17th place and mostly due to the cultivated area reduction. Their maximum decrease was marked in the last ten years of the XX century. At present lentil sowing in the country occupy altogether 6...11 thous. ha.
The main reason of the real situation is low economic efficiency of production. That is why it is necessary to understand what market potential the crop has and what perspectives are to be realized in the conditions of Russia Agro Industrial Complex. This article is devoted to the reference data analysis and the results of research of lentil grain performance in the aspect of its biofortification and diversification.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Lentil is one of the first domesticated crops. Its cultivation is connected with the beginning of so called “agricultural revolution”, took place about 10000 years ago in the Middle East [33]. The most ancient findings of the wild growing lentil remnants are found in settlement Mureybit (Syria), domesticated forms are found in the Neolithic age layers in Turkey [37]. Alo together with colleagues [29] on the basis of PCR-analysis of 308 species from collection ICARDA, presenting all seven taxons of family Lens, determined that the factual area of domesticated lentil appearance can be South Turkey. The maximum variety of wild growing species and primitive domesticated forms are typical for these territories. They
prove that the Middle East is the primary center of lentil domestication. According to the researchers’ opinion lentil domestication was done by selection of subspecies L. culinaris subsp. orientalis inside wild populations [37]. On the basis of research of the chromosome polymorphism and the DNA the suggestion was done that this process was realized simultaneously or during the short period [58].
Lentil spreading from centre of origin was done in the period of agriculture active development in several directions [37]. The cultivating areal extension took place in complex with such crops as barley, wheat, chickpea, pea, broad beans, etc. It is stated that about 8000 years ago lentil was in Greece; 5000-7000 years ago in the Central Europe and in Egypt. On the territory of modern Spain it appeared approximately 7500 years ago in the content of typical group of the Middle East crops (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum, barley, pea, peavine, broad beans). Then (4000 years ago) lentil transferred to the Indian subcontinent. There as the result of reproductive isolation specific endemic variety group was formed. It was characterized with asynchronous flowering [34]. To the ancient Russia lentil came from Greece through Italy, Germany and Lithuania, being one of the main peasants’ food in the middle centuries [14].
The wide areal of lentil extension is explained with its valuable high protein content and its role in food and provision of food safety of millions of people [35]. Also as for many other leguminous crops the protein content is the most important criterion of lentil grain quality. At the result of the regionalized and perspective varieties study in competitive variety trial in All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops it was stated that their protein content is 27,9% in the average [18]. Its maximum content is observed in large scaled seed (МТС >60g) varieties Л-68, Vekhovskaya 1 and Svetlaya (in the average 28,6%), that contradicts to the well-known fact: there is negative correlation between seeds size and protein content [3]. In the selection process it is typical for the majority of leguminous crops that mass of 1000 seeds is the leading factor of their productivity growth. But at the same time the relative protein content in seeds decreases [1, 2]. Lentil can be considered an exception from this rule. The results of our research demonstrate that this crop protein content correlates positively with seeds size though the level of the correlation is not high [17, 28]. Analogical data are obtained by B. Sharma [51]. This points out to definite perspective of increase not only in seed size but also in consumption indicators of their quality of new lentil varieties.
To improve this or that plant indicator with selection methods is necessary to know the genotypic variation. As the investigation result in 2001...2003 and in 2007...2009 (54 and 63 species, correspondingly) prebreeding collections of lentil species of different ecological and geographical origin obtained from genofonds of All-Union Research Institute of Plant Breeding under the name of Vavilov of Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Ukrainian Centre of Genetic Plant Resources of Ukraine Academy of Agricultural Sciences, we demonstrate that the protein content of genotypes Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris varies in a wide range - from 21,7 to 32,2% [15, 16]. The species with steady high protein content are differentiated. They considerably increased regionalize standard by this indicator: к-1700, к-224 (Russia), к-2821, к-2824 (France); Luganchanka, к-1973 (Ukraine), they are recommended as sources for selection for high quality of crop grain.
It is known that lentil protein is referred to biologically valuable, because its content includes all essential amino acids [14, 46, 47]. It is a good lysine source but it is poor in sulfur containing amino acids and tryptophan [5, 57]. Thus combined usage of cereals grain (lysine deficient but well provided with methionine, cysteine and tryptophan) and и leguminous (including lentil) creates well balanced by the protein content food mixture [35, 55]. It is possible to give many examples of complex usage of grains of these crops in nutrition of different continents peoples: maize and beans in America, sorgo and vigna in Africa, different types of wheat and beans, pea, lentil, peavine in Europe and in the Middle East, rice and pigeon pea in Asia.
Besides protein, seeds of different lentil varieties have about 67 % carbohydrates, 2,5 % - fat, 12,2 % - dietary fibers. Energy value of 100 g of lentil seeds corresponds to 1,638 kJ [6, 10, 18, 21, 22, 39].
Lipids have great value for person’s nutrition. They are important source of bioactive
components - phytosterols, squalenes and tocopherols [48]. Lentil seeds have many phenol compounds with high antioxidant activity [30]. From fatty acids the considerable number corresponds to unsaturated acids - linolic and oleic acids [57].
Besides, lentil seeds have carotenoid pigments, in particular beta-carotene, which has antioxidant properties and is necessary for normal vision, immunity improvement. Also it participates in protection from toxins and cancer formation. Beta-carotene content fluctuates from 1 to 6 mg/g and seed consumption 100 grams per week meets person’s consumption completely [54].
Lentil seeds contain such vitamins as inositol, nicotinic and ascorbic acids, that are necessary for balanced nutrition [31, 49, 50].
Lentil is included into top-50 of vegetal products with maximum content of prebiotics -physiologically functional food ingredients, providing at systematical consumption positive influence on person’s organism in the result of selective stimulation of growth and / or increase of biological activity of normal flora of intestine.
Lentil is characterized with high concentration of the most important microelements [35, 55] and can successfully assist to decide the problem of their deficiency in nutrition which is suffered by nearly two billions of people on the Earth (especially in the countries of eastern Asia, Africa and the Latin America) [54]. That is why it is considered as model object of biofortification - a new trend in traditional selection, connected with increase of nutrient value (including, microelements content) of agricultural crops.
One of the most important microelement is selenium, deficiency of which is felt in the world by 30-100 bln. people. It results in considerable worsening their health [32, 52]. The consumption of sufficient amount of selenium considerably decreases the cancer risks. Selenium possesses antioxidant properties, increases enzyme activity, and positively influences the muscular tissues development. Lentil seeds in this case can serve as an important carrier of this microelement. Different lentil varieties being grown in the North America contain 425-673 mg Se in 1 kg of seeds. Consumption of 100 grams of lentil provides 77-122% of week human need in selenium. But accumulation of Se in the crop seeds greatly depends on its concentration in the soil. Thus in lentil being grown in Syria, Morocco and Turkey on the soils with low selenium content it accumulated only in the amount of 22-47 mg/kg of seeds [54].
No less important is ferrum and zinc content in seeds, because the first microelement is included into the blood enzymes content which realizes oxygen transport, regulates the processes of cell growth and differentiation, the second enzyme has antioxidant properties and is necessary for the DNA replication, protein synthesis, oxidative stress reduction, fulfils brain blastema protective function. Nowadays nearly 60% of the Earth population suffers from ferrum deficiency and 30% - zinc. This situation is typical for developed and developing countries [41, 54, 56].
Lentil contains the considerably amount of these elements [10, 35], that mostly depends on place of crop cultivation and from soil mineral content [54, 55]. The maximum high ferrum content is typical for lentil from Syria (63 mg/kg), Turkey (60 mg/kg), minimum -from Australia (46 mg/kg) and Morocco (42 mg/kg). Maximum zinc amount is contained in lentil seeds, grown in Syria (36 mg/kg), Turkey (32 mg/kg) and the USA (28 mg/kg), minimum amount - in Australia (18 mg/kg) and Morocco (27 mg/kg).
It is stated that consumption of 50 g of lentil seeds produced in the central part of the North America, covers the minimum of 20-50% of week human need in ferrum and 20-30% need in zinc [55]. At the same time, the relatively low content of phytates is defined in lentil. This increases the availability of ferrum and zinc for human organism [53]. Genetic biofortification allows reaching the increase of the mentioned elements content in lentil in different regions by means of finding out and involving into the selection process the genotypes with enhanced capability to their accumulation.
Lentil is a rich source of some other important for nutrition microelements: Mg (9111087 mg/kg), Mn (10,8-16,4 mg/kg) and Cu (6,9-9,3 mg/kg) [54]. Consumption of 50 g of crop seeds provides 10-58% of the recommended for a person these elements number. High level of genotype variation by their content allows doing dedicated selection for chemical content improvement.
Lentil dominates among leguminous grain crops in taste and nutrient value. It is cooked well and has fine and pleasant taste [21, 55]. Dishes cooked from lentil differ little in taste and nutrient value from meat dishes [24]. In countries of the South-East Asia lentil was called "pauper meat”, but now dishes from it are popular in nutrition of different social-economic groups of population [31]. That is why culinary grain evaluation is very important for lentil. Analyzed in competitive variety trial in All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops regionalized and perspective lentil varieties were characterized with great variety according to cooking period (47-72 min.), the cooking ratio varied in inconsiderable range (2,4-2,7%) [18]. The highest cooking was typical for small seed varieties, that had the best water-uptake ratio for shorter time period: Lana (50 min., К=2,7%) and species Chiflik 7 (47 min., К=2,6%); the worst - large scaled seed varieties: Vekhoskaya 1 (72 min., К=2,4%) and Svetlaya (65 min., К=2,5%). At that all lentil varieties had excellent taste qualities.
It is stated in our research and other authors’ works, that being compared with other leguminous crops, lentil seeds are characterized with low activity of inhibitors of trypsin and chymotripsin [8, 27].
Biochemical lentil seeds content makes it especial valuable in medical, children and vegetarian nutrition. In medical diets it is used to decrease the risk level of cardiovascular diseases, tonsillitis, type II diabetes and hypertension [42, 55].
Unique consumer advantage of lentil seed is the correlation of protein (1/4 part) and carbohydrates with dietary fibers (3/4). This ideal balance defines low glycolic index of lentil (25) and allows regulation of normal level of sugar in blood. Such protein and carbohydrates combination is the most pleasant for sportsmen nutrition, especially skiers, runners, football players. It was stated in the course of special experiments, being done in Canada [55]. In this case lentil is considered as natural energetic.
As a whole these properties and qualities of seed make lentil highly popular crop in the consumer world market. The basic market lentil seed classes in the North America have yellow colour of cotyledons, but at the last time the interest to red seed lentil, especially chipped integrate and cut is increasing [44]. The most popular green lentil varieties are large scaled seed varieties with mass 1000 seeds 50-70 g: Brewer, Laird, CDC Glamis and others. Middle scaled seed Canadian variety Richlea is highly valued for high productivity and excellent quality of seed. Small scaled seed varieties of green lentil with МТС 30-42 g Eston, Viceroy and others are very popular, mainly on the markets of Europe, the Central and North America. Red seed lentil is popular on the world market, especially in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Egypt, in the countries of the West Asia, these are its main importers. Crimson, CDC Blaze, CDC Redberry, CDC Red Rider are grown from the varieties of such type. Spain brown lentil Pardina is widely cultivated in the USA and is exported, mainly to Spain. French lentil with green strongly spotted colour of seed cover is presented mainly on the Europe markets and is used in an integrate form for salad cooking. The main varieties of this type are Du Puy, Peridot CL и LeMay.
In farm enterprises of the West Asia, the North and East Africa preference is given to different lentil varieties. Thus in Turkey and Syria 80-85% of red seed lentil and 15-20% of green seed lentil are grown; 95% areas are occupied with large scaled green lentil varieties in Iran and Morocco, and in Ethiopia only red seed lentil is cultivated [49]. In Australia also red seed varieties are the most popular [43].
Large scaled seed green (plate) lentil is widely spread in Russia. The varieties with brownless and weak brown seeds, with steady without a design colour are considered to be the most popular [21]. In connection with this lentil selection in All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops is directed mainly to create varieties of such kind. Seed size of the studied in the competitive variety trial varieties change in the range of from 4,5+5,0 to 7,0+6,5 mm [18]. The largest grain was typical for the following varieties Vekhovskaya 1, Svetlaya, Aida, Л-93, the smallest - Lana and species of Obraztsov Chiflik 7. At this created in All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops, variety Svetlaya, included into the State Register of selection achievements, eligible for use, at storage does not get brown for a long time and keeps light colour according to its name. The best from the studied by us modern lentil varieties keep the fractionary seed content practically unchanged by years. Their seeds are characterized also with high evenness which varies in the range of
74,7.88,8%. According to seed covers and regionalized and perspective varieties differ insufficiently - 10.10,8%. But it is possible to detect the regularity of increase of cover content with decrease of seed size. Small scaled (MTC < 40 g) varieties Lana and Obraztsov Chiflik 7 have the highest content of covers. It reflects negatively on consumer quality of seed.
It is necessary to stress that in the aspect of technological culture diversification not only the whole grain quality but also the obtained from it groats and flours play the most important role. It is proved that lentil groat is more nutritious than whole grains because its seed covers at processing are taken away [20]. Flour is mostly used in baking industry. Its addition to wheat flour in amount of 15-20% increases protein content in bread by 3-4%. Lentil flour is also used in confectionary and gastronomic industry at production of coffee, cacao, sweets, biscuits, chocolate, sausages [13, 23, 26]. Receipts and technologies of combined foods, close or analogical to taste advantages to drinking dairy and fermented milk products are developed on the basis of lentil [4].
Taking into consideration unique biochemical content in the aspect of consumer diversification deep processing of lentil grain can have wide perspectives. Nowadays there is great number of works on obtaining protein isolates from different raw sources. Never the less industrial production is based on mainly one type of vegetal resources - soybeans, in spite of great efforts directed to raw base extension to obtain vegetal protein products [9]. Lentil is actively investigated in this aspect. The possibility to use lentil for preparation of combined meat and vegetal products is demonstrated. Substitution of meat raw for flour from lentil reduces fat fraction by 1,2...4,4% and increases protein fraction by 1,6...3,1% [19]. High content of separate essential amino acids in lentil protein creates the possibility of obtaining food products with increased biological value in the result of mixing and common consumption of proteins of vegetal and animal origin [5]. Texturization of protein isolates of lentil and development of meat artificial products on their basis is perspective [11].
Vegetative mass of lentil plants plays an important role in the live-stock breeding. It is valuable fodder for agricultural animals [7, 20, 25, 38, 49]. The Haddad u Husein researches demonstrate [40] that lentil grain by its nutrient value surpasses vetch grain and comes to alfalfa grain. Green mass of plants can be used as a green manure [45, 57].
CONCLUSION
Thus, lentil grain biochemical content promotes it as one of the essential dietary products, used in every day ration, medical, children and vegetarian nutrition, and also allows extending biofortification and consumer diversification of the crop. Lentil can play a very important role in providing food safety of the country.
The enumerated advantages of lentil give the reason to consider it high-yield market crop. The Canadian experience demonstrates that it is able to bring significant income to the state as a crop with high export potential. In 2009 when 1,51 bln. tons of lentil grain were produced, 1,25 bln. tons for the sum of 918804 thous. $ (FAOSTAT) was exported [36]. The second place was occupied by the USA, which export was 184077 tons of grain. This year Russia at total production of 7180 tons delivered to the market only 2389 tons of grain for the sum of 1435 thous. $.
That is why the lentil crop revival in Russia can be considered as one of the prior directions of national plant science development, selection must be the ground for it from one side and modern technologies of deep processing must be from the other. This completely corresponds to the main requirements of the strategy of The Russian Federation grain farming development - the necessity of technological and consumer diversification of crops, which means the increase of an assortment and the produced food quality [12].
REFERENCES
1. Amelin, A. V. About change of structure elements of yield of pea grain varieties in the result of selection / A. V. Amelin // Selection and Seed Breeding. - 1993. - № 2. - P. 9-14.
2. Amelin, A. V. Biological pea potential and its realization in different periods of crop
development / A. V. Amelin // Selection and Seed Breeding. - 1999. - №2-3. - P. 15-21.
3. Amelin, A. V. The selection process influence on seed consumer qualities P. sativum L./ A. V. Amelin, N. A. Monakhova // Actual problems of applied research development and the ways to increase their efficiency in agricultural production. - Kazan’, 2001.
4. Antipova V. M. Obtaining of milk beverages analogs from non-conventional raw / V. M. Antipova, V. M. Perelygin, E. E. Kurchaeva // Vestnik of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. - 2001. - № 6. - P.79-81.
5. Antipova, L. V. Lentil: perspectives of usage in foods technology / L. V. Antipova, E. E. Kurchaeva, V. I. Manzhesov and others: monography. - Voronezh: Federal State Educational Establishment of Higher Professional Training Voronezh State Agrarian University, 2010. - 255 p.
6. Arora, S. K. Chemistry and biochemistry of legumes / S. K. Arora - M.: Agropromisdat, 1986. - 335p.
7. Barulina, E. I. Lentil of the USSR and other countries / E. I. Barulina - L.: Leningrad Oblstlit, 1930. - 319 p.
8. Benken, I. I. Activity of trypsin inhibitor and protein content in seeds of peavine and lentil / I. I. Benken, T. A. Voluzneva, I. I. Miroshnichenko // Science Technical Library of AllUnion Research Institute of Plant Breeding. - L., 1977. - Issue 73. - C. 29-34.
9. Barudo, E. E. Alternative approaches to obtaining vegetal protein products. / E. E. Barudo, A. N. Danilenko, V. T. Dianova and others // Vegetal protein: new perspectives. -M.: Pischepromizdat, 2000. - P. 6-23.
10. Varlakhov, M. D. Lentil - a perspective crop / M. D. Varlakhov // Agrarian science. -1996.- №4.-P. 34-35.
11. Glotova, I. A. Perspectives of usage of protein isolates from lentil in the meat food technology / I. A. Glotova, V. J. Astanina, L. V. Antipova and others // Vestnik of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. - 1999. - №3. - P.70-73.
12. Zhuchenko, A. A. Resource potential of grain production in Russia / A. A. Zhuchenko. -M.: Agrorus, 2004. - 1109 p.
13. Zalozny, K Pay more attention to lentil / K. Zalozny // Leguminous crops. - 1963. - № 12. -P.8.
14. Zotikov, V. I. Lentil - the forgotten crop / V. I. Zotikov, T. S. Naumkina, I. V. Kondykov // Agro Industrial Complex Expert. - 2009. - II qu. (8). - P.36-37.
15. Kondykov, I. V. Screening of characteristics collection of lentil in the conditions of the Central Black-Earth Region of the Russian Federation / I. V. Kondykov, E. A. Skotnikova, I. I. Yan’kov // Science Technical Library of All-Russian Research Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops. - Orel, 2005. - Issu 43. - P.10-16.
16. Kondykov, I. V. The starting material for lentil selection for high seed productivity in the Central Black-Earth Region of the Russian Federation / I. V. Kondykov, A. A. Yanova, A. V. Ikonnikov, A. V. Amelin // Vestnik of Orel State Agrarian University. - 2009. - №3 (18). -P. 29-32.
17. Kondykov, I. V. Peculiarities of interrelation and variation of economic charactersof lentil / I. V. Kondykov, A. A. Yanova, E. S. Chuvasheva, N. N. Kondykova // Scientific notes of Orel State University. - 2010. - № 2 (36). - P.248-250.
18. Kostikova, N. O. Grain quality of lentil varieties of new generation / N. O. Kostikova, O. V. Uvarova, A. A. Yanova, E. S. Chuvasheva, I. V. Kondykov // «Modern aspects of structural and functional biology of plants and fungi » Coll. of papers of All-Russian confer. - Orel, Orel State University, 2010. - P.140-143.
19. Krylova, V. B. Lentil - source of food vegetal protein / V. B. Krylova // Vestnik of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. - 1994. - №1. - P.21-22.
20. Leontyev, V. M. Lentil / V. M. Leontyev. - L.: Kolos, 1966. -180p.
21. Mayorova, M. M. The main directions and results of plate lentil selection / M. M. Mayorova // Scientific supply of agro industrial complex of the Volga region and adjacent regions. - Penza, 2009.- P.85-101.
22. Pavlovskaya, N. E. Biochemistry of leguminous and graot crops: monography / N. E. Pavlovskaya, V. I. Zotikov, N. N. Kornienko and others - Orel: Publ. Orel State Agrarian University, 2010. - 300 p.
23. Paschenko, L. P. Products of beans modification in the bread technolog / L. P. Paschenko, A. Y. Serebryakova, I. M. Tareeva and others // Food technology progress. -Krasnodar, 2000. - P. 297-298.
24. Pomogaeva, A. I. To improve the selection activity on lentil / A. I. Pomogaeva, A. I. Chirkov // Selection and seed breeding. - 1968. - № 2. - P.31-32.
25. Posypanov, G. S. Old crop in new quality / G. S. Posypanov // Grain farming. - 1987. - №5. -P.18-19.
26. Pyl’nev, V. V. Local selection of field crops / V. V. Pyl’nev. - М.: KolosS, 2005. - 552 p.
27. Suvorova, G. N. Characteristics of wild grown lentil varieties Lens Mill. / G. N. Suvorova, I. V. Kondykov, E. A. Skotnikova and others // Scientific supply of production of leguminous and groat crops. - Orel, 2004 - P. 219-225.
28. Yanova A. A. Productivity and morphobiological peculiarities of new generation lentil varieties in the Central Black-Earth Region of the Russian Federation / A. A. Yanova, I. V. Kondykov // Grain farming of Russia. - 2011. - №1(13). - P.19-22.
29. Alo, F. Leveraging genomic resources of model species for the assessment of diversity and phylogeny in wild and domesticated lentil / F. Alo, B.J. Furman, Е. Akhunov, et al. // J. of Heredity. - 2011. - 102 (3). - Р.315-329.
30. Amarowicz, R. Antioxidant activity of a red lentil extract and its fractions / R. Amarowicz, I. Estrella, T. Hernandez et al. // Int. J. Mol. Sci. - 2009. -V.10 P.5513-5527.
31. Bhatty, R.S. Composition and quality of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.): a review / R.S. Bhatty / Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology. - 1988. V. 21. - P.144-160.
32. Combs, G.F. jr. Selenium in global food systems / G.F. Combs jr. // British J. of Nutrition. 2001. - V. 85. - P.517-547.
33. Cubero, J.I. Origin, phylogeny, domestication and spread / J.I. Cubero, M. Perez de la Vega, R. Fratini // The Lentil: botany, production and uses. Erskine W., Muehlbauer F., Sarker A., Sharma B. (eds.). - CAB International, Wallingford, UK. - 2009. Р.13-33.
34. Erskine, W. A bottleneck in lentil: widening its genetic base in South Asia / W.Erskine, S. Chandra, M. Chaudhry et al. // Euphytica. - 1998. - V.101. - P.207-211.
35. Erskine, W. Crops that feed the world 3. Investing in lentil improvement toward a food secure world / W. Erskine, A. Sarker, S. Kumar // Food Sec. - 2011. - V.3. - P.127-139.
36. FAO STAT [электронный ресурс]. - режим доступа: http: faostat. fao. org.
37. Fratini, R. Lentil origin and domestication / R. Fratini, M. Perez de la Vega, J.I. Cubero // Grain legumes. - 2011. - ISSUE No.57. - P.5-9.
38. Gilbery, T.C. Effect of field peas, chickpeas, and lentils on rumen fermentation, digestion, microbial protein synthesis, and feedlot performance in receiving diets for beef cattle / T.C. Gilbery, G.P.Lardy et al. / J. of Animal science. = 2007. - V.85(11). - P.3045-3053.
39. Grusak, M.A. Nutritional and health-beneficial quality / The lentil—Botany, production and uses. - W. Erskine, F.J. Muehlbauer, A. Sarker, B. Sharma (eds.). - Wallingford: Comm. Agric. Bureau. - 2009. - P. 368-390.
40. Haddad, S.G. Nutritive value of lentil and vetch straws as compared with alfalfa hay and wheat straw for replacement ewe lambs / S.G. Haddad, M.Q. Husein / Small Ruminant Research. - 2001. -V.40. - P.255-260.
41. Hotz, C. Assessment of the risk of zinc deficiency in populations and options for its control / C. Hotz, K.H. Brown / Food Nutrition Bulletin. - 2004. V. 25. - P.94-204.
42. Lukito, W. Candidate foods in the Asia - Pacific region for cardiovascular protection: nuts, soy, lentils and tempe. / W. Lukito // Asia Pasific J. of Clinical Nutrition. - 2001. - V.10(2).
- P.128-133.
43. Materne, M. Lentil in Australia / M. Materne, L. McMurray, J.B. Brouwer // Grain legumes
- 2011. - ISSUE No. 57, - Р.52-55.
44. McPhee, K.E. Lentil production in North America and the major market classes / K.E. McPhee, F.J. Muehlbauer // Grain legumes - 2011. - ISSUE No. 57. - Р.43-45.
45. Mihailovic, V. Use of lentil for forage and green manure // V. Mihailovic, A. Mikic, B. Cupina et al. // Grain legumes. - 2011. - ISSUE No. 57. - Р.56.
46. Porres, J.M. Digestive utilisation of protein and amino acids from raw and heated lentils by growing rats / J.M. Porres, G. Urbano, I. Fernandez et al. // J. of the Science of Food and Agriculture. - 2002. - V.82. - P.1740-1747.
47. Rozan, P. Amino acids in seeds and seedlings of the genus Lens. / P. Rozan, Y. Kuo, F. Lambein // Phytochemistry. - 2001. - №58 (2). - P.281-289.
48. Ryan, E. Phytosterol, squalene, tocopherol content and fatty acid, profile of selected seeds, grains, and legumes // E. Ryan, K. Galvin, T.P.O. Connor et al. // Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. - 2007 - V.62. - P.85-91.
49. Sarker, A. Lentils in production and food systems in West Asia and Africa // A. Sarker, S. Kumar // Grain legumes. - 2011. - ISSUE No. 57. - P.46-48.
50. Savage, G.P. The composition and nutritive value of lentils (Lens culinaris) / G.P. Savage // Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews (Series A). - 1988 - V. 58. = P.320-343.
51. Sharma, B. Genes for traits of economic importance in lentil / B. Sharma // Grain legumes. - ISSUE No. 57. - 2011. - P.15-17.
52. Thavarajah, D. High potential for selenium biofortification of lentils (Lens culinaris) / D. Thavarajah, J. Ruszkowski, A. Vandenberg // J. Agric. Food Chem. - 2008. - V.56. -P.10747-10753.
53. Thavarajah, D. Phytic acid and Fe and Zn concentration in lentil (Lens culinaris L.) seeds is influenced by temperature during seed filling period // D. Thavarajah, P. Thavarajah, C.-T. See et al. // Food Chemistry. - 2010. - V.122. - P.254-259.
54. Thavarajah, D. Lentil (Lens culinaris) as a biofortified crop with essential micronutrients: a food-based solution to micronutrient malnutrition / D. Thavarajah, P. Thavarajah // Grain legumes. - 2011. - ISSUE No. 57. P. 29-31.
55. Vandenberg, B. Lentils - the little seeds with the big impact on human health / B. Vandenberg // Grain legumes. - ISSUE No. 57. - 2011. - P.25-26.
56. Yang, X.E. Improving human micronutrients nutrition through biofortification in the soil-plant system: China case study / X.E. Yang, W.R. Chen, Y. Feng // Environment and Geochemical Health. - 2007. - V.29. - P.413-428.
57. Zia-ul-haq, M. Compositional studies of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) cultivars commonly grown in Pakistan / M. Zia-ul-haq, S. Ahmad, M. Aslam Shad et al. // Pak. J. Bot. - 2011. -V.43(3). - P.1563-1567.
58. Zohary, D. Monophyletic vs. polyphyletic origin of the crops on which agriculture was founded in the Near East / D. Zohary // Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. - 1999 - V.46. -P.133-142.
