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II. TRADITIONS OF GERMAN PHILOSOPHY: FROM NICHOLAS OF CUSA TO FRIEDRICH SCHELLING
I. Evlampiev (Saint-Petersburg)
THE TRADITION OF PANTHEISM: FROM NICHOLAS OF CUSA TO SCHELLING
1
In the history of philosophy, the term „Pantheism" was often used by church ideologists in accusations of heresy. Consequently, it is impossible to find a strict philosophical definition of pantheism. Stating that pantheism postulates identity of God and the world obviously does not pass any serious philosophical criticism.
Schelling gave an exhaustive explanation of the true sense of pantheism and demonstrated the great value of this tradition. He justified pantheism as a rather reasonable doctrine and asserted that it had been very popular in the history of philosophy:
„For thus it, should likely not be denied that, if pantheism denotes nothing more than the doctrine of the immanence of things in God, every rational viewpoint in some sense must be drawn to this doctrine".1
Schelling resolutely rejected the view that pantheism „consisted of a complete identification of God with things; a blending of creator and created being from which yet another set of difficult and unbearable assertions is derived".2 Even Spinoza, the most well known and radical supporter of pantheism in the history of European thought, did not affirm
1 Schelling F. W. J. Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom. Translation, introduction and notes by Jeff Lovel and Johannes Schmidt. State University of New York Press. Albany, 2006. P. 11.
2 Ibid. P. 12.
equality of God and things as „they are absolutely separate from God due to the fact that they can only exist in and according to another (namely, to Him), that their concept is a derived one that would not be possible at all without the concept of God; since, to the contrary, the latter concept alone is what is independent and original, alone what affirms itself, that to which everything else can be related only as affirmed, only as consequence to ground".3
From here, Schelling drew an important conclusion proving how much his understanding of pantheism was distinguished from what was usually implied by the term:
"Precisely because of this difference, all individual things together cannot amount to God, as commonly maintained, in so far as no combination can transform what is by nature derivative into what is by nature original, just as little as the individual points on a circumference when taken together cannot amount to that circumference, since as a whole, and according to its concept, it must necessarily precede them".4
According to Schelling's understanding of pantheism, the main task was to explain the possibility of carrying out the non-illusory distinction between the world of created things and the absolute God. He solved this problem through a distinction between the ground of existence of God and actual existence of God.
"This ground of his existence, which God has in himself, is not God considered absolutely, that is, in so far as he exists; for it is only the ground of his existence. It [the ground] is nature — in God, a being indeed inseparable, yet still distinct, from him".5
He then explained further what was understood by „ground": "...it is the yearning the eternal One feels to give rise to itself. The yearning is not the One itself but is after all co-eternal with it. The yearning wants to generate God, that is, unfathomable unity, but in this respect there is not yet unity in the yearning itself".6
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid. P. 12-13.
5 Ibid. P. 27.
6 Ibid. P. 28.
Schelling stated very firmly that the above postulate should not be interpreted as God being secondary in relation to the ground, as though he „arises" from it. God exists in eternity, as does the ground; the specified connection is necessary to explain the dialectics of formation of things in the created world. The ground that Schelling metaphorically described as „darkness" and „chaos" is overcome in God and removed by the actual existence of God as pure light, reason and order. However, even when overcome in God, it „remains eternally in the ground [of things]"; created world is a constant becoming, movement from „darkness" (ground) to „light" (the actually existing God). Only in man does this tendency appear capable to achieve the object, even though there is no full „enlight-enment" from the initial „darkness" that he arises from; that explains the difference between the man and the actually existing God.
Schelling very clearly outlined the essence of pantheistic tendency but that is not to say that he was the first one to base his philosophy on principles of pantheism. Further enhancing his thought, one might argue that pantheism might have been the most important tradition in European philosophy that gave rise to some deepest and most auspicious doctrines. Sources of pantheism may be found as far back as ancient philosophy, in Plato and Neo-Platonics but it was only within Christian philosophy that it became a significant and comprehensive school of thought. The latter appears paradoxical since Christian outlook is generally considered incompatible with Pantheism; more specifically, its dogmatic concept of world creation based on the church doctrine is contradictory to pantheism.
In fact, there is no real paradox or contradiction here; one should bear in mind that throughout history, Christianity had existed in two very different forms. First, or spiritual Christianity was guided by the original, undeformed doctrine of Jesus Christ. Second, or church Christianity was based on a somewhat corrected and as a result falsified version of the specified doctrine constituted and legalised by means of its latest dogmatic decisions. The historical moment when the two opposing versions of Christianity had arisen is well known. In Rome around 140 AD, Marcion of Sinope accused the contemporary Roman clergy of distorting Jesus Christ's doctrine. To prove it, he provided some original Apostolic writing collected in remote provinces and therefore not yet compromised
by founders of the so-called „corrected" version of Christianity, an original messages from Apostle Paul and the Ancient Gospel of the Lord.7 Marcion's accusations compelled the Roman clergy to resolute actions, the New Testament known to us today being the main result. A considerable part thereof, i. e. three synoptic Gospels and Acts of Apostles were created during that time in order to substantiate the „corrected" version of Christianity. Two main corrections had been carried out; first, an absolutely unnatural connection of Jesus Christ's doctrine with Judaism against which it had been directed and second, a radical „neutralization" of the idea of man's spiritual perfection based on the concept of human deep-rooted sinfulness. During the course of such corrections and for the purpose of their justification, the Roman clergy invented a story about first „Gnostics" who had allegedly used different parts of Jesus Christ's doctrine to create a heretical doctrine opposing Christianity. Consequently, the sacred writings describing the life and doctrine of Christ and accepted by Christians were divided into „canonical" and „non-ca-nonical" (apocryphal) texts. The first were declared as authentic and the second, as latest imaginations by some mythical heretics and gnostics.
Modern scientific approach unequivocally denies this notion hitherto supported by the church. Most likely, the opposite is true, i.e. some of the texts known today as apocryphal are the earliest Christian compositions, such as the Gospel of Thomas that is stylistically similar to collection of logia, or Jesus Christ's set phrases. According to modern researchers, such collections preceded the writing of fully formed Gospel stories. Out of four Gospels, possibly only John's has an ancient origin; that is why it contains clearly gnostical, i.e. actually early Christian, motives even though writers of the existing New Testament tried hard to hide them through obvious and very rough distortions of the text. The other three (synoptic) Gospels and also the Acts of Apostles might have been especially created to substantiate the new reading of Jesus Christ's doctrine accepted by the Roman church hierarchy in the second century AD. Marcion's attempts to restore the original sense of Jesus Christ's doctrine
7 See: Charles B. W. History ofthe Christian Religion to the Year Two-Hundred. 1881; Joseph B. T. Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle. 2006.
resulted in him being declared the most dangerous heretic, i. e. gnostic. To follow this logic, not Marcion but Jesus Christ should have been proclaimed the main gnostic.
In later years, the original or spiritual Christianity was persecuted. It became very dangerous for the church as the idea of man's sinfulness, the most important church doctrine upon which its domination was based, had been rejected. The original Christianity, or Gnosticism had recognized man as the son of God, i. e. a spiritual and an inherently divine being; thereby it rejected the presence of an insuperable ontological distance between man and God and consequently, between the world and God. In terms of philosophical expression, it could not be anything other than pantheism, in its different forms. Within this tradition, the most original philosophical concepts in European philosophy emerged, from Eriugena to Schelling, Hegel and Schopenhauer. This tradition continued into the 20th century; one might find its legacy in the philosophical concepts of Henri-Louis Bergson and many famous Russian philosophers such as Semyon Frank, Nikolay Berdyaev, Ivan Ilyin, Leo Karsavin et al., and even Martin Heidegger.
2
The doctrine of Nicholas of Cusa is the culmination of Christian pantheistic philosophy; from his version of pantheism, a continuous line of development is stretching up to existentialist ontology. Most directly (literally „in accordance with Schelling"), Nicholas expressed the main thesis of the pantheistic concept in affirmation (it appears in different variants some times in his treatises):
".. .all things that are present mundanely in the world are present non-mundanely in God (for in God they are present divinely and are God)".8 Thus, all things in the world exist simultaneously in two modes, i.e. in the world and in God and these modes are very different. In the treatise De Possest, existence of things in God is characterized by the fact that in the world, there is only a possibility to get an equal status of a real being.
8 De Possest, 71, translation here and below by Jasper Hopkins published by the Athur J. Banning Press, Minneapolis.
This could be described another way; things get their „world" status through a division between being and possibility that coincide in their existence in God. In a sense, one might say that the world together with all the isolated things results from the act of the distinction occurring in the divine being, i. e. in God. We could therefore argue that in Nicholas's ontology, the world and things coexist in God, i.e. are immanent of God and are distinct from Him. But being immanent of God, each thing appears identical to God as God cannot be perceived as divided or made up of things. It leads to a paradoxical conclusion that God can be called by a name of anything, for example of sun. This confirms that Nicholas refers to Hermes Trismegistus. Here is how he justifies it:
"I affirmed that God is sun — though [He is] not [sun] in the same way as is the visible sun which is not what it is able to be. For assuredly, He who is what (He) is able to be does not fail to have solar being; rather, He has it in a better way because [He has it] in a divine and most perfect way".9
Thereby, describing the mode of existence of things in God, one might note that it is based on a principle of identity of part and whole. Stating that Maximum (God) is above any concrete definitions, Nicholas wrote, ".anything whatsoever in the One is understood to be the One, and the One [is understood to be] all things, and, consequently, anything whatsoever in the One [is understood to be] all things".10
The simplest and most infinite Essence of Maximum „is the most simple Essence of all essences; <...> in this Essence all the essences of past, present, and future things are — ever and eternally — actually this Essence; and so, [it is] all essences, even as it is the Essence of all [essences]; <.> the Essence of all [essences] is each essence in such a way that it is all of them together and none of them in particular <...>".u
Everything coincides with everything in the Absolute and a variety of things appear illusory and insignificant versus theirs unity. We could therefore argue that Cusanus understood God as a Pan-Unity. Moreover, Nicholas pioneered this new philosophical concept; in ancient times,
9 De Possest, 12.
10 De Docta Ignorantia I, 10, 27.
11 De Docta Ignorantia, I, 16, 45.
elements of this conception appeared in Plato's philosophy and also in Neo-Platonism.
Let us now focus on how Nicholas understood the existence of things in the world. The principle of identity of part and whole did no longer apply or more precisely, it is not valid in all completeness. For if it is not valid absolutely, any part could not comprehend the sense of the whole, i.e. man in the world life could not comprehend the world as a whole and God. However, according to Nicholas, we are capable of doing that. Restriction of this principle means independence of parts against whole; it implies that in the created world, it is not only and not so much the unity of things that matters but their division. Each thing is identical to itself but differs from another self-identical one.
Even in the created world, each thing might possess its unique being owing to identity with God; thus things would appear confronting each other as each of them would struggle for that unique completeness of an absolute being and would try and take the whole world into itself. Consequently, the divine Pan-Unity would appear to multiply in an infinite set of relative but not divine unities, i.e. separate things and phenomena. An absolute being is in harmony with itself in each thing but it also operates as though against itself when we examine relations of one thing to another.
The utmost paradox of such a notion is that the egoism of things manifests itself in every element of a being protecting its own existence and aspiring to become the centre of all the existing. This appears to be a direct consequence of the presence of a divine, absolute being in things. Here is how Nicholas writes about it addressing God in this statement:
„You are present to each and every thing — just as being, without which things cannot exist, is present to each and every thing. For You who are the Absolute Being of all things are present to each thing as if You were concerned about no other thing at all. (Consequently, there is no thing that does not prefer its own being to everything else and does not prefer its own mode of being to all the modes of being of other things; and each thing so cherishes its own being that it would let the being of all other things perish rather than its own.) For You, oh Lord, behold each existing thing in such a way that no existing thing can conceive that
You have any other concern than (1) that this very thing exist in the best manner it can and (2) that all other existing things exist only in order to serve the following end: viz., that this thing upon which you are looking exist in the best way".12
We could therefore conclude that extreme forms of self-love, egoism and dictatorship in man are none other than a direct presence of God in himself, i.e. presence of his own God. Terrestrial will to power, literally corresponding to Nietzsche's main concept that is inherent in each person appears deformed when shown in the world mode, in the quality of God, His omnipotence and wholeness.
3
The pantheistic tradition continued its existence in non-classical philosophy. For example, it is obviously present at Arthur Schopenhauer's theory. He claimed that a metaphysical understanding of relations between the Absolute and the world (concrete being) might only be possible within a model of their direct identity. Considering world phenomena, one should use the principle of sufficient reason to explain one phenomenon through another and through the world in its general structure. However, when we try to find a source of existence of a particular phenomenon in metaphysical consideration, we should search for it in accordance with the law of identity, i.e. in a direct unity of the phenomenon with the specified source. Contrary to classical tradition in which the transcendental Absolute cannot be directly shown in immanent sphere of human consciousness, Schopenhauer insisted on such a direct appearance of the Absolute. He believed that the Transcendental Absolute was immanent in human consciousness.
Schopenhauer criticized rationalistic theories of earlier philosophers and as a result, he came very close to that mystical model of pantheism developed by Nicholas of Cusa. Cusanus is not mentioned in Schopenhauer's works. However, Schopenhauer highly appreciated the tradition of mystical pantheism in German philosophy, especially the doctrine of Meister Eckhart whom he aptly called the father of German mysticism.
12 De Visione Dei, 4, 9.
Thus Schopenhauer understood very clearly that this philosophical mysticism contradicted the traditionally interpreted Christianity. He obviously realized the distinction between the original, early Christianity and church tradition. He very accurately described the essence of this distinction, the spirit of the authentic doctrine of Jesus Christ, the original spirit of the New Testament incompatible with that of the Old Testament. According to Schopenhauer, the original Christianity only existed in the heretical theories of the Gnostics. In its true sense, it is very similar to the great mystical philosophies of the East such as Brahmanism, Buddhism and Sufism. It is an interesting fact that he called Sufi scholars the Gnostics of Islam.
For Schopenhauer, as well as for other representatives of pantheistic tradition, the major problem was defining the distinction between the Absolute and the world of created things. His solution was very close to that of Nicholas of Cusa, i.e. by means of distinction between the two modes of existence for each thing, in the world of phenomena and in the Absolute.
According to Schopenhauer, each thing beyond its existence as a representation of a subject, i.e. a part of the world of phenomena, also exists in a more primary sense, in unity with the Absolute, i.e. with the will. Like Cusanus, Schopenhauer understood that the Absolute (will) cannot divide into parts; therefore each thing in the mode of unity with the Absolute appears identical to the Absolute and completely „contains" it, i.e. in regards to a specified mode of existence the principle „part is equal to whole" is valid.
„.the essence in itself appearance of which is the world, cannot <.> separate and divide own true selfness in boundless space <...> this infinite extent concerns only its phenomenon, it is completely and inseparably present in each thing of the nature, in each live being".13
One should certainly draw a distinction between the mystical philosophy of Schopenhauer and mystical pantheism of Nicholas of Cusa. Schopenhauer, being a true successor of Kant's transcendentalism, thought of the world of phenomena as a representation of a subject. In this connection,
Schopenhauer A. The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, 25.
man (human consciousness) in his philosophy appears to be not so much an element of the world of phenomena as the act in which the Absolute constitutes this world „inside" itself. This understanding of man was undoubtedly one of major Schopenhauer's achievements. However, he did not seem to have applied this concept consistently enough; statements could be found in his works that obviously contradict this theory and express traditional, naive-realistic model of man. Nevertheless, after Schopenhauer such innovative metaphysics of man became a principal theme of non-classical philosophizing. It can be found in Edmund Hus-serl's phenomenology, in Henri-Louis Bergson's „philosophy of life", in Vladimir Solovyov's concept of Pan-Unity and in the works of many Russian and Western thinkers of the 20th century.14 In conclusion, one might attribute all these philosophical concepts to pantheistic tradition although in each separate case, a more detailed analysis of deflections in the general pantheistic paradigm is required.
14 See: EvlampievI. Die Auffassung vom Menschen in der russichen Philosophie zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. Phänomenologische Quellen und Parallelen // Diskurse der Personalitat. Die Begriffsgeschichte der „Person" aus deutscher und russischer Perspektive / Hrsg. A. Haardt, N. Plotnikov. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Munchen, 2008. S. 225-240.
