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УДК 94(510).06 DOI: 10.22378/2313-6197.2017-5-4.770-785
THE TUQMAQ AND THE MING CHINA: THE TUQMAQ AND THE CHINESE RELATIONS DURING THE MING PERIOD (1394-1456)*
Nurlan Kenzheakhmet
Nazarbayev University Astana, Kazakhstan nurlan.kenzheakhmet@nu. edu.kz
Objective: Little is known about diplomatic relations between the Juchld Ulus and Ming China (1368-1644), even though some evidence of early tributary trade relations exists. The first extant Chinese account about the country of Salai (Saray) dates to around 1394, when accounts of diplomatic exchange between the Ming court and the Juchld Ulus began to appear in the Ming shilu (The Veritable Records of the Ming).
Research materials: This article analyzes the Ming shilu in order to understand the character of Chinese knowledge about the Juchld Ulus during their years of contact between 1394 and 1456. Additional sources like geographic accounts and maps help define the extent of Chinese knowledge about the khanate, clarify the kinds of information that the Chinese sought and the reasons why, and measure the influence of cross-cultural contact on Ming Chinese understanding of the Juchld Ulus.
Results and novelty of the research: The Ming shilu suggests that at least by the end of the fourteenth and the early years of the fifteenth century, Salai (Saray) became an integral, and possibly the most important, element in the name that the Ming court used for the country of the Juchld Ulus. The Persian and Mongol historians used the term Tuqmaq and Togmog to refer to the Juchld Ulus, while Ming Chinese historians used the term Tuohema to refer to the Juchld Ulus or the whole Dasht-i Qipchaq, in post-Mongol Central Eurasia. The diplomatic contact between Ming China and the Tuohuma occurred through the Chinese system of tribute trade during the mid-fifteenth century. Under the reign of Yongle (1402-1424), Zhengtong (1435-1449), and Jingtai (1449-1457), the foundations for a flourishing relationship between Ming China and the Juchld Ulus were established. At that time, the Chinese knew the Juchld Ulus by the name Salai (Saray) and Tuohuma (Tuqmaq). Despite the political turmoil that erupted after the fall of the Juchld Ulus, the Chinese continued to glean new information about the Juchld Ulus from envoys who arrived from Central Asia.
Keywords: Juchld Ulus, Ming China, Saray and Salai, Ozbek and Yuezubo, Tuqmaq and Tuohuma, Ming Chinese chronicles, Chinese Maps
For citation: Kenzheakhmet N. The Tuqmaq and the Ming China: The Tuqmaq and the Chinese Relations during the Ming Period (1394-1456). Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie =Golden Horde Review. 2017. Vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 770-785. DOI: 10.22378/2313-6197.20175-4.770-785
* The term Zolotaya Orda [Golden Horde]) was first used in the second half of the sixteenth century by the Russian chroniclers to refer to the city of Saray. Hence I have used the appellation Tuqmaq throughout this work.
© Kenzheakhmet N., 2017
Various names of the Juchid Ulus were in use from Mid-Fourteenth century to the Mid-Fifteenth century. The terminology used in Chinese, Persian and Turkic historical materials:
1. Wilayat of Saray and Salai ^^
It is necessary to define some of the ethnic terms in use in the Juchid Ulus. By the mid-thirteenth century when the partition of the newly conquered territories was made among Chingiz's Khans sons, the Dasht-i Qipchaq was divided among the sons of Chingiz Khan's eldest son, Juchi. The eastern territories of the Ulus which can be called Eastern Dasht-i Qipchaq or the Left Wing (Sol Qol) of the Juchid's Ulus, were originally allotted to Juchi's eldest son Orda or Orda Ichen, while the western half or the Right Wing (Ong Qol) of the Dasht-i Qipchaq formed an integral part of the patrimony of the Juchi's second son, Batu. In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries such as the Jami' al-tawarikh, the khanate was called the 'ulus-i Juchi' ('realm of Juchi' in Mongolian), Dasht-i Qipchaq (Qipchaq Steppe in Persian) or Qipchaq Bashi (Head of Qipchaq in Turkic) [32, p. 513, 521]. The designation Juchid Ulus (ulus-i Juchi), which literally means the people of Juchi, encompassed the nomadic population of Central Eurasia that had been brought under Juchid governance in the first half of the thirteenth century.
The Turkic historians and the early Ming China historians used the term Saray or Salai to refer to the Golden Horde. The Eastern Dasht-i Qipchaq ruled by Orda was formally subjected to the khans of Saray or Ulus of Batu but practically enjoyed total independence in matters in inner affairs.
The Tarikh-i Dust Sultan or Chingiz-nama, written by Utamish Hajji b. Maw-lana Dusti in Khwarazim in ca.1555 and dedicated to Dust Muhammad Khan of Khwarazimian Ozbek "'Arabshahid" dynasty, Batu's Ulus was officially known as the Saray Wilayati:
Jan Bik Khanning anasi Tay Duwali Bigim imdi "Yurttaqi khanliq Shiban Khan ughlanlarighah takar" tib Manqutay ughli Khidr Khanni unda yitib iltib Saray wilayatindah khan qildi. "Sayin Khan ughlanlarindin sung ul khan takhtin-dah khanliq bizga takkandur" tirlar.
Tay Duwali Bigim, the mother of Jan Bik Khan, decided that khanal authority in the country should pass to the line of Shiban Khan's offspring. She went and brought out Khidr Khan, the son of Manqutay, and elevated him as khan in the Wilayat of Saray. "After the descendents of Sayin Khan, authority over that khanal seat passed to us", (the Shibanids) say [39, p. 38b-39a]1. At the time, since the lineage of Batu had come to an end, according to the yasa [Mongol customary law] and the law of inheritance, the ultimate rule was passed on to the descendants of Shiban Khan, Juchi's fifth son. According to Z.V. Togan (1890-1970), a Bashkurt Turk professor, many Ozbek uruks in today's Turgay province, in the vicinity of "Ak Gol" [White Lake], raised to the throne, as Khidr Khan, who was a descendant of Shiban [37, p. 31].
1 The usage of the term of wilayat by Central Asian authors is notoriously diffuse, because - to employ a rather awkward distinction - it can be used as an element of either 'political' or 'territorial' vocabulary.
The fourteenth century Ming China chroniclers employed the term Salai for the Jüchid Ulüs. For instance, Ming shilu2 refers to the Jüchid Ulüs as Salai ^^ [25, Taizu shilu, juan 232, p. 3395]. The Ming shilu entry for the day gengchen of the fourth month of the twenty seventh year of the reign of Hongwu (11 May 1394), reads as follows: "the seven realms of the Xiyu (Western Region) are Nepal of India, Duogan, Shazhou, Wusizang, Sali-Weiwu'er (Sariy Uiyur), Salai (Saray), and Sama'erhan (Samarqand)"3.
Salai also occurs in the Ming shilu entry for the day kuisi of the fifth month of the seventh year of the reign of Yongle (4 July 1409):
"Saray, Sali huihui (Sariy Uiyur?), Niebek (?) and others came to Court and offered tribute of horses. Paper money and variegated silks, were conferred upon them" [25, Taizong shilu (Veritable records of the Taizong [Emperor] of the Ming), juan 92, p. 1223]4.
2. Özbek and Yuezubo ^ffifÖ
The Turkic people of the entire Dasht-i Qipchäq [Qipchäq steppe], from the Syr Darya River and Khwärazim to the Idil [Volga] basin and Saqlab, were termed "Özbek" during the reign of the Özbek Khan (1282-1341, r. 1313-1341), the ninth ruler of the Jüchid Ulüs.
Özbeks are first mentioned in the work of the Ilkhanid historian Hamd Allah Mustaufi Qazvini (born around 1280) who, in his Tarikh-i guzida (Selected History), describes the invation of Özbek Khan into the Ilkhanate in 1335, calling the Jüchid Ulüs armies the "Özbeks" (Uzbakiyan), and calls the Jüchid Ulüs "the kingdom of Özbek" (mamlakat-i Uzbaki) [45, p. 221-223 (text), p. 93 (trans.)]. Hamd Allah Mustaufi Qazvini's son Zain al-Din, who added the description of the events that took place in Iran between 1341 and 1390 to the Tarikh-i guzida, also designates the Jüchid Ulüs ruled by Jani Beg Khan (r. 1342-57), the son of Özbek Khan, as "the Özbek Ulüs" (ulüs-i Uzbak) [45, p. 226 (text), p. 97 (trans.)]. The ethnonym of Özbek is known from the famous Central Asian histories such as Abü al-Ghazi Bahadur Khan's Shajara-i Türk va Moghül and the Shajarat al-atrak or the Tarikh-i arba' ulüs by Ulügh Beg, tracing the origin of the designation Özbek to Özbek Khan [33, p. 206-207 (trans.), p. 266 (text); 26, p. 138; 6, p. 231-232; 9, p. 101, n. 75]. In the Shajara-i Türk va Moghül, Abü al-Ghazi Bahadur Khan relates:
"He (Özbek Khan) brought the il and ulus to the faith of Islam. Thanks to this possessor of good fortune, all the people had the honor of receiving the glory of Islam. It is after him that all the il of Jöchi were called the il of Özbek (el ulusni din-i islamga körküzdi barca halq ol sahib-i davlatni'ng sababindin saraf-i islamga musarraf boldilar andin song barca Jochi elini Özbäk eli tedilär)" [2, p. 178 (text), 183-184 (trans.)].
2 Ming shilu BJÄiS (The Veritable Records of the Ming). 133 vols. (Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1967). Many editions exist; here we used the photo-lithographed version compiled by the Academia Sinica in Taiwan over the years 1962 to 1967 under the direction of Huang Zhangjian It is on the Taiwan edition that this article is based.
3 Chinese text: ffli^^, ffl^MAf» tyfW,
4 Chinese text:
It is clear that, whether these accounts reflect historical events or not, the designation Ozbek began to be used as a term denoting the nomadic people of the Juchid Ulus during the reign of Ozbek Khan. Therefore, it may be assumed that the Juchid Ulus also became known as the Ozbek Ulus after Ozbek Khan's reign. The designation Yuezubo (Ozbek) was also used in the Chinese sources and the Chinese maps to refer to the Juchid Ulus of the fourteenth century.
This name can be found on a Chinese map entitled Yuan Jingshi dadian xibei dili tu (Map from the Jingshi dadian of the Yuan, repre-
senting countries to the northwest) of the year 1331, as Yuezubo ^ftf^, also called Yuejibie ^BPS'J or Yuezubo in the Yuanshi ^^ (History of the Yuan) [44, juan 117, p. 2906; 5, II, p. 6]. According to the Yuan chronicle, Yuezubo is the name of the horde or ulus of the Dasht-i Qipchaq. In Tarikh-i Rashidi this country is mentioned as Uzbeg ulus or Uzbegstan [10, p. 272, 366, 374].
At the end of the geographical section, the Yuan shi (History of the Yuan) offers an appendix entitled 'Xibei di fulu (countries to the northwest of the Yuan Dynasty)'. It consists of an enumeration of countries and places; almost all of which can be easily identified with place names found in the Yuan jingshi dadian dili tu (The geographical map from the Encyclopedia of Yuan dynasty Institutions), published in 1331, which describes the Mongol dominions in Central and Western Asia [5, II, p. 3-136]. According to the "Yuan shi [44, juan 63, p. 1570], the realm of the Yuezubo includes Sa'erkesi (Circasia or Shirkasia/Cherkess), Alan IW (Alans or Alania), Asi IMS (Asi/Osi, modern Ossetians), Qincha ^^ (Qipchaq), Aluosi IMS (Rus), Buli'a'er (Bulghar), Sajila ffi^J (Saqlab), Hualazimo ^J^ (Khwarazim), Sailan (Sabran)5, Ba'erchihan (Barchinliy-kand, Ba'erchili in Jingshi dadian dili tu), Zhande (Jend or Jand, Zhande Sl in Jingshi dadian dili tu). The last two cities appear on the famous Kangnido map, as Balichiyan M^^ (Barchinliy-kand) and Chande JJ| (Jend) [17, p. 148-149].
In the first half of the sixteenth century, Ming Chinese chroniclers refer to the Qazaq Khanate as MBPfiL, or MBPfiL^^, the name in Ming shilu must be pronounced Ejibie, or Ejibie-Haxin, a Chinese transcription of "Ozbek", or "Ozbek-Qazaq" (see below).
3. The Tuqmaq and the Tuohuma
The Central Asian historians, Mongolian chroniclers and Ming China historians used the term Tuqmaq and Tuohuma to refer to the Juchid Ulus [37, p. 27-29; 5, II, p. 161]. For instance, Natanzi refers to the Golden Horde as the Tuqmaq Ulus (ulus-i Tuqmaq) [28, p. 138 (trans.], p. 242 (text); 29, p. 435]. The designation Tuohuma was a term used by the Ming chroniclers to refer to the Juchid Ulus in 1415 [25, Taizong shilu, juan 169, p. 1890]. In his Xiyu fan'guozhi (A Record of the Barbarian Countries in the Western Region), a report of the Ming dynasty written in 1414-1415 for the Yongle emperor, Chen Cheng (1365-1457), provide a slightly different version of the account about the border of the Beshbalyq, and mentioned the country of Tuohuma [41, p. 102]. In the Ming shilu, in a report under the first year of the Zhengtong reign (1436), Toqmaq is also called as
5 It must be Sabran, modern Sawran in Kazakhstan.
Tuohuoma [25, Yingzong shilu (Veritable Records of the Yingzong
[Emperor] of the Ming), juan 24, p. 489]. The Da Ming huidian (Col-
lected statutes of the Ming Dynasty), in 1587 edition, also mentions Tuohuma together with the names of other countries [8, juan 107, Chaogong 3]. Ming shi lists twenty-nine names of dimian (territories) including Tuohuma, that used to present tribute through Qumul [24, juan 332, p. 8626].
The sixteenth-seventeenth centuries Buddhist Mongolian chroniclers refer to the Juchid Ulus as Toymay. The Mongolian anonymous Cayan Teuke (White History), written during the reign of Qubilay Khan between 1260 and 1280, reviced and edited by Qutugtu Secen Qong Tayijii (1540-1586), mentioned the conquest of the Toymay's Mang Kulig Sultan qayan and the Sartayul's Jalildin Sultan by Chinggiz Khan [4, p. 123]. Another Mongolian work on the subject known as Bolur Toli (The Crystal Mirror), compiled by Jimbadorji, a noble from Urad banner, circa 18341837, mentioned Jeliledun Sultan of Sartagul and Manulan Sultan khan of Tomog. In his Erdeni-yin Tobci (The Precious Button), Sayang Secen Qong Tayijii (1604-?) called Toymay's king as Mengulig sultan qayan [40, p. 163; p. 231 (trans.), p. 584 (text)]. Mongolian chronicle's usage of Sultan qayan or Sultan khan was identical with that of Yuan shi. The biography of Guo Baoyu, a Han Chinese from Shanxi who had been serving to the Mongols at the time of the early Mongol conquests in Central Asia, in the official history of the Yuan dynasty contains much that is of interest. In the Yuan shi, Mang Kulig Sultan qayan or Manulan Sultan khan is briefly called as Suandan Han (Sultan Khan). According to the Yuan shi, in 1214, Guo Baoyu
accompanied Chinggis Khan on his campaigns against the Qipchaq and Naiman. The Suandan Han (Sultan Khan) of Kefucha M^X (Qipchaq) was obeyed, the Naiman country was defeated, and Guo Baoyu was involved in the taking of Xiansigan ftS^ (Semizkend, i.e. Samarqand) [44, juan 149, p. 3522]6. Sayang Secen refers to the Eastern Dasht-i Qipchaq or Juchid Ulus as Toymay Ulus [40, p. 163, 231 (trans.), p. 584 (text)]. In mentioning the Eastern Dasht-i Qipchaq, Lubsangdanjin, the author of the Altan Tobci (The Golden Button), also designates the Juchid Ulus as Toymay [19, p. 90, 293].
According to Z.V. Togan, "among the Khiva Ozbeks, the term (in Ebulgazi) known as 'Togma'; Baskurts 'Tuvma'; Nogay (according to the Cevdet Pasha history) 'Tokma' designated individuals without a known lineage, or fugitives to be sold as slaves, being offenders of the law" [37, p. 27].
Natanzi also employes the term Tuqmaq to refer to the armies of both Temur Malik, the son of Urus Khan, and Toqtami'sh [29, p. 336, 425].
The seventeenth century Mongolian chroniclers employed the term Toymay for the Dasht-i Qipchaq. For instance, in his Erdeni-yin Tobci, Ssanang Ssetsen refers to the nomads of the Juchid Ulus during the reigns of Esen Taishi (r. 1439-1455) and the Qazaq Khaqnazar khan (r. 1538-1580), as Toymay without distinction [34, p. 113, 141-142]. In mentioning the names of the Juchid khans, Lubsangdanjin, the author of the Altan Tobci, also designates both the Ozbek khan Muhammad Shi-bani and the Qazaq Khaqnazar khan as Toymay [20, p. 90].
6 Chinese text: [$№5]
The designation Toymay also seems to have been in use in the Ming Dynasty in the early fifteenth century. The Ming historian calls Abu'l-Khayr Khan "the king of the territory of Tuohema" (M^ftffiffi [25, Yingzong shilu
(Veritable Records of the Yingzong [Emperor] of the Ming), juan 224, p. 4851].
The realm of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, the ancestor of the Shibanid Ozbeks, are identified with the Tuqmaq and the Juchid Ulus in Persian sources. Khvandamir refers to Abu'l-Khayr Khan as "the king of the Ulus of Juchid Khan" (padshah-i ulus-i Juchi Khan) [18, 4: 50].
The relationships between the Tuqmaq and the Ming dynasty
As we see from the above passage, the Juchid Ulus was recorded in Ming shilu as Salai, on the day gengchen of the fourth month of the twenty seventh year of the reign of Hongwu (11 May 1394) [25, Taizu shilu (Veritable Records of the Taizu [Emperor] of the Ming), juan 232, p. 3395).
Another record containing the name Salai appears in the Ming shilu entry for the day kuisi of the fifth month of the seventh year of the reign of Yongle (4 July 1409).
The first record of Tuqmaq was recorded in Ming shilu as Tuohuma, on the day of kuisi ^E in the tenth Chinese lunar month in the thirteenth year of Yongle ^^ (30 November 1415). This is a report of the Li Da ^^ and Chen Cheng (1365-1457) written in 1414-1415 for the Yongle emperor7:
"The country (of Beshbalyq) is bounded on the east by Qamul, on the west by Samarqand. After Temur Kuragan subjugated Samarqand, now (this country) is bounded on the west by the Tuohuma, on the north by the Oyirat8 and on the southeast by Khotan and Aduan" [25, Taizong shilu (Veritable Records of the Taizong [Emperor] of the Ming), juan 169, p. 1890]9.
In his Xiyu fan'guozhi (A Record of the Barbarian Countries in the Western Region), Chen Cheng provide a slightly different version of the account about the Tuohuma: "[the country (of Beshbalyq)] is bounded on the east by Qamul, on the west by Samarqand. After Temur fuma (Kuragan) subjugated Samarqand, now (this country) is bounded on the west by Yangyi10, on the north-west by the Tuohuma, on the north by the Oyirat and on the south-east by Khotan and Aduan" [41, p. 102].
This pattern appears in the appendix in the Guangyutu (Broad terrestrial map) entitled Huayi jianzhi (Chinese and Non-Chinese administrative divi-
sion), a geographic compilation of maps and texts compiled by Luo Hongxian (1504-1564) in 1541 [21, p. 427].
Another record containing the name Tuohuoma MAft appears in the first year of the reign of Zhengtong (6 January 1437) of Ming Yingyong shilu:
"The envoys that had been sent by the three places of the Oyirat, Qamul and Tuohuoma, and...all came to Court and offered tribute of horses and local pro-
7 Li Da is the eunuch who went on the diplomatic mission with Chen Cheng.
8 The Oyirat are the Qalmaqs as they were known in Central Asia.
9 Chinese text: ¡^KBA, A: ff^teAM^fr
AffiM^m A^KiiJffig, mSffiAM, №
10 Yangi, modern Taraz in southern Kazakhstan.
ducts. A banquet as well as paper money and other goods, as appropriate, were conferred upon them" [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 24, p. 489]11.
The King of Tuohuma was recorded in Ming shilu as Maheima ^Mft, on the day renxu of the fourth month of the eleventh year of the reign of Zhengtong (22 May 1447):
"The envoy Tumintu Maheima ^ft^^Mft (Tumen tuy Muhammad) who had been sent by King Maheima (Muhammad Khan) of Tuohuma (Tuqmaq) and other places... all came to the Court and offered tribute of camels and horses and other products. A banquet as well as variegated silks and other goods, as appropriate, were conferred upon them" [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 153, p. 2994]12.
The name Maheima can easily be recognized as the name (Kuchuk or Kicik) Muhammad (1391-1459), the khan of the Juchid Ulus. In the MSL, the name of Muhammad is translated into Chinese as Maheima while the name of
Mahmud is translated as Maheimu ^M^13.
The King of Tuohuma was recorded in Ming shilu as wangzi (prince), on the day xinmao of the fifth month of the eleventh year of the reign of Zhengtong (10 July 1447):
"It was ordered that the chief envoy Huozhi Maheima Tumintu ^K^Mft^ft^ (Khwaja Muhammad Tumen tuy?) take on the post of Vice Chiliarch, that the deputy envoy Dawu (Dawud?) take on the post of Commander, and that Zhemaluding (Jamal ad-Din) take on the post of Battalion Prison, who had been sent by the prince of Tuohuma" [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 154, p. 3020]14.
The envoy Huozhi Maheima Tumintu is mentioned again in subsequent years by the name of Tumintu Maheima ^ft^^Mft:
"The envoy Tumintu Maheima and others who had been sent by Maheima, the king of the country Tuohuma, took leave from the Court. It was ordered that they carry Imperial orders, paper money and biao-li of variegated silks, and other goods to confer, on their return, upon their king" [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 154, p. 3020]15.
Who was Tumintu Maheima? An envoy from Samarqand, referred at least three times between 1437-1448, bore the names of Maheima Tumintu
11 Chinese text:
12 Chinese text:
mmmrnrn^mmM.
13 In the Ming shilu, the name of Muh ammad translated into Chinese as Maheima^-Bft, while the name of Mahmü d translated as Maheimu ^-B^. In the Uighur documents Gaochang guan ke of Ming dynasty Sutan Maheimu ^iÎ^Sft (Sultan Muhammad) was translated into Turkic as Sultan Maqemat [11, p. 62].
14 Chinese text:
immrnrn.
15 Chinese text:
^Mft^ft^ [25, Xuanzong shilu, juan 82], Shehei Maheima ^EUft (Shakh/Sheikh Mahmud) [25, Yingzong shili, juan 160, p. 3119] or Shehei Maheima Tumaitu (Sheikh Mahmud) [25, Yingzong shilu,
juan 167, p. 3232]. One of the enovys of Yemili Huozhe was also called as Maheima Tumiantu ^MM^fc&M (30 May 1435) [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 129, p. 2566]. The first part of his Arabic title, shehei, sheikh, was used to designate a learned person, as an Arabic word it is essentially independent of religion. The last part of his "Mongol-Turkic" title is tumintu or tumaitu. Obviously both expressions are transcription of the same words: tuman tuy (ten thousand standard or banner), which marked a high rank among the nobility; military unit of ten thousand. The unit of ten thousand is used throughout the Jami'u't-tawarikh for the Turkish tuman. The subdivisions of the tuman were the ming, yuz, on. They were components of the tuman, the "divisions"of ten thousand.
The Ming shilu also mentioned an envoy from Taolaisi (Tabriz) called Dalahan shehei Maheima minhatu (Tarkhan sheikh
Muhammad Minghan tuy?):
"[On the day wuwu of the eighth month of the sixth year of the reign of Xuande (2 October 1431)] the envoy Dalahan shehei Maheima minhatu and others who had been sent by wanhu Yisimayin of Taolaisi all came to the Court and offered tribute and other products" [25, Xuanzong shilu, juan 82, p. 1906-1907]16.
The last part of his "Mongol-Turkic" title, minha tu, is transcription of the word minghan tuy (thousand standard or banner). Minghan is the Mongolian for thousand.
As for "tumintu" or "tumaitu", the title of the Maheima, I do not know whether this was a title conferred by the Tuqmaq or by the Samarqand (Timurid). Unfortunately, my efforts are confined by the limits of these few materials, and I cannot ascertain who this person was, or ascertain the situation of the administrative relationship between the Tuqmaq and the Samarqand.
The ruler of Tuohuma is referred to as king (wang) in the Ming Shilu (10 January 1453: day yichou of the twelfth month of the third year Jingtai), where it is recorded that the king of Bulahai (Abu'l-Khayr Khan) sent envoys to the Ming court and his name occurs together with Janibek, a king of Asibie (Ozbek)17:
"The rulers (in Central Asia) all sent envoys to pay horses as tribute to (the Ming) court. They were Zhongshun wang (Loyalty and Obedience King) Daowadashili (Dawadasiri/Dawadasiri) and headman Tuotuo buhua (Toqto Buqa
16 Chinese text:
17 Chinese text:
or Toytö Buqa) from Hami (Qamul); King Yexian Buhua (Esän Buqa Khan) and his wife Hudu sudan (Qutluq Sultan?), and headman Shela (Shela) from the Ilibali dimian (the territory of Moghulistan)18; King Emili Huzhe (Mir Khwaja)19 and his wife Guwa'er Sutan (Gawhar Sultan?)20, and headman Mama mi'erza (Mamay Mirza?) et al., from Tulufan dimian (the territory of Turfan); princess Dalamen et al., who is the elder sister of Emili Huzhe (Mir Khwaja), and headman Dalabie'erde (Dawlat Berdi?) from the Chalishi dimian (the territory of Chalish); King Bulahai (AbU'l-Khayr) from Tuohuma dimian (the territory of TUqmaq); headman Gelaitan (Giray Sultan?) from Sailan dimian (the territory of Sayram); headman Sulutan Maheimu (Sultan Muhammad) from Badansha (the territory of Badakhshan); headman Su'er Busawen (Sultan AbU Sa'id?) from Sulutanya dimian (the territory of Sultaniya); King Zhanibie (Janibek) from Asibie dimian (the territory of Özbek); King Sutan Ali (Sultan Ali) from Sheliwan-naiding dimian (the territory of Shirwan-i Ajam?); Prince Adehansha, the son of King Saini Abuding, from Alamula dimian (the territory of Varahamula); and headmen from 121 territories such as Keshimi'er (Kashmir), Hala Huozhou (Qara Qoja), Tieliman (Termez?), Saolan (Sawran); and so on21 [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 224, p. 4851].
To my knowledge, this is the only passage in the Yingzong section of the Ming shilu where Bulahai is mentioned as king of the Tuohuma. Bulahai is Chinese form of AbU'l-Khayr. Medieval Chinese sources translated the Arabic personal names 'AbU' into Chinese as 'bu'. For instance, AbU'said, the last Ilkhanid ruler (1316— 1335), is mentioned in the Yuan shi as Busaiyin [44, juan 63, p. 1571].
AbU'said, a Timurid ruler in Transoxiana, is mentioned in the Ming shilu as Busayin hffiH [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 267, p. 5676; 15, p. 211]. According to Usmanov, in the late-seventeenth century's Däftär-i Cingiz-nämä, AbU'l-Khayr Khan is called Bolyar Khan [38, p. 116; 7, p. 37].
As we see from the above passage, the ruler of Asibie dimian (the territory of Asibie) was recorded in Ming shilu as Zhanibie, on the day of jichou in the twelfth Chinese lunar month in the year of Jingtai (1453). The name Zhanibie can easily be recognized as the name of the first Qazaq khan Janibek (?-1480), son of Baraq Khan (r. 1425-1428) of the Äq Orda (White Horde). Asibie, Özbek, appears to represent the title of "Özbek Janibek Khan."
However, as the record in the Ming shilu does not provide any direct evidence regarding the year of Janibek and Giray's separation from AbU al-Khair Khan, it may be that by 1453 Janibek and Giray were acting as independent kings with their own diplomatic initiatives. It was thought for long that with Baraq Khan's death UrUs Khan's line had extinguished, and AbU'l-Khayr Khan eventually conquered the Eastern Dasht-i Qipchaq and ruled over the whole UrUs Khan's house since 1428. Janibek himself associated with the Asibie dimian (Chinese version of ulus-i
18 According to the Uighur documents Gaochang guan ke of the Ming dynasty, Shela was translated into Turkic as Shela. This full name is Shela Mahamushe
(Shela Maqamutsha) [11, p. 46].
19 Perhaps Mir Khwaja, the son of Khidr Khwaja, see: [27, p. 52].
20 The Mu 'izz al-ansab fi shajarat al-ansab (The Book in Praise of Genealogies) which is a genealogy of the Chingizid and the Timurid families written in Persian in 1426-1427, mentioned Gawhar Sultan, the daughter of Shah-Jahan, see: [27, p. 52].
21 For the countries' names, mentioned in this account, see: [14, p. 4-5].
Uzbaki), which suggests that the Qazaq Khanate should be understood as emerging as a separate political entity, centered in the Syr Darya region. After Baraq Khan's death, the Aq Orda split into several parts: the Abu'l-Khayr's Khanate, the Noyay Horde and the Qazaq Khanate.
Let us pause briefly and look at the state of affairs in the beginning of the 1430s-1440s. Together with other Shibanids, Abu'l-Khayr Khan's ancestors had lived for most of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in the region of Western Siberia. After the reign of Jumaduq Khan, in 1428, Abu'l-Khayr Khan established themselves in khanal authority at Tura, in the region Ibir-Sibir. According to the the Tarikh-i Abu 'l-Khayr Khani, another general history up to Abu'l-Khayr Khan and his descendants, written in Persian by Masud Kuhistani, before the conquest of Syr Darya region, Abu'l-Khayr Khan ruled only over the region Ibir-Sibir until 1446.
With the help of Edigu's grandson Vaqqas Biy and another followers, Abu'l-Khayr Khan now was about to finish his southward expansion into Khwarazim. In 1431/32 Abu'l-Khayr Khan attacked the brothers Mahmud Khan and Ahmad Khan, the sons of Kuchuk Muhammad, and they met the Abu'l-Khayr Khan's army at Ikri-Tup [46, p. 36]. Abu'l-Khayr Khan beat two brothers and captured Orda-Bazar, although Mahmud Khan and Ahmad Khan were able to flee [23, p. 154-155; 46, p. 3637]. According to the Bahr al-asrar fi manaqib al- akhyar, after the battle, Mahmud Khan and Ahmad Khan returned und ruled over they realm [31, p. 157].
Until recently it has been thought that Janibek and Giray's fled from Abu al-Khair Khan took place in the fifties or sixties of the fifteenth century, and a large group of Ozbek nomads fled from Abu al-Khair Khan's oppressive rule and became the qazaqs. I am inclined to think that when Siynaq was occupied by Abu'l-Khayr Khan in 1446, Janibek and Giray fled to somewhere in Qazaq Steppe. Thus, Janibek and Giray's fled from the Syr Darya region coincided with the occupation of Sighnaq by Abu'l-Khayr Khan in 1446. Then, after ten years of vagrancy, these Qazaq fugivities settled down in the Moghulistan, the region seized by Quzi Bashi from Isan Bugha Khan. As K. Akishev put it, "the date of the founding (1428) of the Abu'l-Khay Khanate, should be considered as the beginning of the Ozbek and the Qazaq statehood" [3, p. 132]. The Timurid historians also regarded the Juchid Ulus ruled by Urus Khan (r. ca. 1368-1378), the ancestor of the Qazaq khans Janibek and Giray, as Ozbek. In theMuntakhab altavarikh- iMu'ini, Natanzi refers to the throne of the western wing of the Jochid Ulus, which Urus Khan captured, as "the Ozbek throne" (takht-i Uzbak) [28, p. 131 (trans.), p. 242 (text)]. It should be noted that the two countries ruled by Abu'l-Khayr Khan and Janibek Khan, respectively, were called Tuohema and Asibie in the Ming shilu. Thus, the Qazaq Khanate should be regarded as a successor state to the Baraq's branch of the Urusid lineage, rather than as a new Qazaq state.
To our surprise, in the Ming shilu mention a Sayram chief is called Gelai j^^M (see above). The Chinese form Gelaitan most likely a copyist error for Gelai sutan ^^^M, a Turkic name that would be written Giray Sultan, great-grandsons of Urus Khan, a central figure of the formation of the Qazaq Khanate. The name itself appears in the Persian sources as Gaday in the Majma' al-ansab wa-l-ashjar, which is a genealogy of the Islamic rulers and the Central Asian dynasties written in Persian in the end of the nineteenth century. Giray must be read for Gaday. Gaday is a typical Persian typographical error [1, fol. 347 (text), p. 275 (trans.)]. Sailan is either Sayram, or Sabran in Southern Kazakhstan.
The Ming shilu entry for day guisi of the ninth month of the seventh year of the reign of Jingtai, reads as follows:
"[On the day guisi of the ninth month of the seventh year of the reign of Jingtai (25 October 1456) the envoy-commander Shanxiding (Shams ad-Din or Shamshidin) who had been sent by the countries of Hami and Tuohuma (Tuqmaq) and.. .all came to the Court and offered tribute of horses and local products. A banquet as well as variegated silks and other goods, as appropriate, were conferred upon them" [25, Yingzong shilu, juan 270, p. 5732]22.
Table of the Juchld Ulus's tribute to the Ming Dynasty
Year (reign year) Name of Khanate Name of Khan or Envoy Sources
1394 (Hongwu 27) Salai « Taizu shilu, juan 232
1409 (Yongle 7) Salai Taizong shilu, juan 92
1415 (Yongle 13) Tuohuma Yingzong shilu, juan 224
1437 (Zhengtong 1) Tuohuoma Yingzong shilu, juan 24
1447 (Zhengtong 12) Tuohuma Khan: Maheima wang (Muhammad Khan) Envoy: Tumintu Maheima (Tümen tuy Muhammad) Yingzong shilu, juan 153
1447 (Zhengtong 12) Tuohuma Wangzi (Prince) Envoy: Huozhi Maheima Tumintu (Khwaja Muhammad Tümen tuy) Yingzong shilu, juan 154
1453 (Jingtai 3) Tuohuma Bulahai wang (Abü'l-Khayr Khan) Yingzong shilu, juan 224
1456 (Jingtai 7) Tuohuma Shanxiding (Shams ad-Din) Yingzong shilu, juan 270
After 1456, Tuohuma disappearred from Ming shilu. The Eastern Tuqmaq began to split into three parts: the "Ozbek Shiban", the "Ozbek Qazaq" and the "Ozbek Mangit". According to Z.V. Togan, the division of the Ozbeks into the "Ozbek", the "Qazaq" and the "Mangit-Nogay" took place not in the Idil basin but while they were living in the Syr Darya basin [37, p. 30]. At that time, the western regions of today's Kazakhstan, as well as Bashkurt and Tura lands, became subjected to Mangit-Nogay in their entirety. In 1486, Muhammad Shibani, the real founder of Shibanid power, took control of some fortresses of Khwarazim. At the turn of the sixteenth century, Muhammad Shibani led his fellow Shibanids and their non-Chingizid tribal supporters' invasion of the Timurid-governed Mawara al-nahr, conquered Samarqand from Babur in 1500.
In the first half of the sixteenth century, the Ming Chinese chroniclers refer to the Qazaq Khanate as MBPfiL, or MBPfiL^A. The name in Ming shilu must be
22 Chinese text:
pronounced as Ejibie, or Ejibie-Haxin, a Chinese transcription of "Ozbek", or "Ozbek-Qazaq" [16, p. 135-138].
Regarding Ejibie-Haxin, Ming shilu reports that (16 March 1532): "As for Ejibie-Haxin, according to a report by the Libu ^^ (Ministry of Rites), [his state] is a Dada huiyi (a foreign state of Tatar Muslims)" [25,
Shizong shilu, juan 135, p. 3192].
Another Ming source, Shuyu zhouzi lu ^^^^^ (Informative records on countries far away), completed by Yan Congjian in 1574, contains an ac-
count of Ejibie-Haxin that includes the following:
"The king of Haxin, formerly living in the Northern Mountains of Samarqand in Ejibie (Ozbek) territory, was also known as being half Dazi (half Tatar)23. Earlier, he had sent an envoy, Tursun, to present tribute and check [information] with the archives. So, Haxin of today is the Haxin of before, which was at that time known as a niche of the Northern Mountains, which now has the place name of Ejibie (Ozbek)" (43, juan15: 492f).
The Ming Chinese sources refer to the Shibanid Dynasty as Sama'erhan (■ffi^^ ^, Samarqand) or Sama'erhan dimian (ffi^^ the Samar-
qand realm), for the city of Samarqand was its capital in the reviewed period, another name for the Shibanid Dynasty. The designation Samarqand, as a generic term for the Timurid-governed Mawara al-nahr, continued to be used in the Shibanid-governed Mawara al-nahr in the Ming sources.
In order to clarify this ambiguity, Ming Chinese historians refer to the khans of the Shibanid Dynasty as the Sama'erhan fanwang (Foreign king of Samarqand):
The "Wuzong shilu" (Veritable Records of the Wuzong [Emperor] of the Ming) transliterated the name of Muhammad Shakhi Bik/Shaybak (or Shibani), the first ruler of the Shibanid Khanate, as Shayibie i^^&L. The Ming shilu refers to Shibani as "fanwang Shayibie the "foreign king Shakhi Bik" of
Sama'erhan ^^^^ (Samarqand), on the day of guimao in the eleventh Chinese lunar month in the third year of the reign of Zhengde (December 1, 1508): "The envoy Maheima Huozhe (Muhammad Khwaja) and others
who had been sent by Shayibie (Shakhi Bik), the barbarian king of Sama'erhan (Samarqand), presented camels and horses, offered tribute of local products. Variegated silks and other goods, as appropriate, were conferred upon them" [25, Wuzong shilu, juan 44, p. 1012]24.
Conclusion
Ming shilu suggests that at least by the end of the fourteenth and the early years of the fifteenth century Salai (Saray) became an integral (and possibly the most important) element in the name that the Ming court used for the country of the Juchid Ulus. The Persian and the Mongol historians used the term Tuqmaq and Togmog to refer to the Juchid Ulus, while the Ming China historians used the term Tuohema to refer to the Juchid Ulus or the whole Dasht-i Qipchaq in the post-Mongol Central Eurasia. The diplomatic contact between Ming China and the Tuohuma occurred
23 Dazi Si, the other name for Tatars (Mongols), partly survived in the popular language as Dazi.
24 Chinese text:
through the Chinese system of tribute trade during the first half of the fifteenth century. Under the reign of Yongle (1402-1424), Zhengtong (1435-1449) and Jingtai (1449-1457), the foundations for a flourishing relationship between Ming China and the Jüchid Ulüs were established. At that time, the Chinese knew the Jüchid Ulüs by the name Salai (Saray) and Tuohuma (Tüqmaq). Despite the political turmoil that erupted after the fall of the Jüchid Ulüs, Chinese gleaned new information about the Jüchid Ulüs from envoys who arrived from Central Asia.
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About the author: Nurlan Kenzheakhmet - Dr. Sci. (History), Visiting Professor of Department of Kazakh Language and Turkic Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nazarbayev University (53, Kabanbay batyr ave., Astana 010000, Kazakhstan). E-mail: nurlan.kenzheakhmet@nu.edu.kz
Received July 5, 2017 Accepted for publication November 25, 2017
Published December 29, 2017
ТУКМАК И МИНСКИЙ КИТАЙ: ОТНОШЕНИЯ МЕЖДУ ТУКМАК И КИТАЕМ В МИНСКИЙ ПЕРИОД (1394-1456)
Нурлан Кенжеахмет
Назарбаев Университет Астана, Казахстан nurlan.kenzheakhmet@nu.edu. kz
Цель исследования: мало что известно о дипломатических отношениях между улусом Джучи и Минским Китаем (1368-1644), несмотря на наличие некоторых сведений о ранних данническо-торговых отношениях. Первый сохранившийся китайский отчет о стране Салай (Сарай) датируется приблизительно 1394 годом, а отчеты о дипломатических обменах между Мин и улусом Джучи впервые появляются в «Мин шилу» («Доподлинные хроники династии Мин»).
Материалы исследования: в данной статье анализируется содержание «Мин шилу» с целью понять характер китайских сведений об улусе Джучи в период контактов между 1394 и 1456 годами. Такие дополнительные источники, как географические отчеты и карты, помогают определить степень осведомленности о ханстве, прояснить, какой тип информации китайцы искали, и для чего, и оценить влияние межкультурного контакта на понимание Минским Китаем улуса Джучи.
Результаты и новизна исследования: «Мин шилу» наводит на мысль, что по крайней мере к концу XIV и первым годам XV века Салай (Сарай) стал неотъемлемым (и, возможно, важнейшим) элементом названия, которое Минский двор использовал по отношению к улусу Джучи. Персидские и монгольские авторы использовали термин Тукмак и Тогмог в отношении к улусу Джучи, тогда как авторы Минского Китая использовали термин Туохума в отношении Джучидского улуса или всего Дашт-и Кипчака в пост-монгольской Центральной Азии. Дипломатический контакт между Минским Китаем и Туохума проходил в рамках китайской системы даннической торговли в течение первой половины XV века. В правления Юнлэ (1402-1424), Чжу Цичжэня (1435-1449) и Чжу Циюя (1449-1457) были установлены плодотворные отношения между Минским Китаем и улусом Джучи. В это время китайцы знали улус Джучи под именем Салай (Сарай) и Туохума (Тукмак). Несмотря на политическую нестабильность, возникшую после распада улуса Джучи, китайцы получали новые сведения об улусе Джучи от посланников, прибывавших из Центральной Азии.
Ключевые слова: улус Джучи, Минский Китай, Сарай и Салай, Узбек и Юэдзу-бо, Тукмак и Туохума, хроники Минского Китая, китайские карты
Для цитирования: Kenzheakhmet N. The Tuqmaq and the Ming China: The Tuqmaq and the Chinese Relations during the Ming Period (1394-1456) // Золотоор-дынское обозрение. 2017. Т. 5, № 4. С. 770-785. DOI: 10.22378/2313-6197.2017-54.770-785
Сведения об авторе: Нурлан Кенжеахмет - доктор исторических наук, приглашенный профессор Отделения казахского языка и тюркологии, школа гуманитарных и социальных наук, Назарбаев Университет (53, просп. батыра Кабанбая, Астана 010000, Казахстан). E-mail: nurlan.kenzheakhmet@nu.edu.kz
Поступила 05.07.2017 Принята к публикации 25.11.2017
Опубликована 29.12.2017
