CC BY
211
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION AND SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES
ROBYN R. LUGAR, OLEG G. SHADSKY, PEGGY C. WEBER
Indiana State University, Tambov State University named After G. R. Derzhavin, Indiana State University
Social work, as a professional activity, has a centennial history in the United States, rich in traditions of practical work. In spite of the obvious fact that the American experience cannot be fully translated and adopted in Russia due to lifestyle differences, socio-economic conditions, ethical principles and cultural differences, understanding one of the leading social work models in the world can have a positive impact on the developing social work field in Russia. Having knowledge about the system of higher education of social workers in the United States may also prove beneficial. Russian social work education has been taking steps in the direction of unification of its standards with the Western higher educational system, leading to the adoption of structural and curricula characteristics present in the United States educational system, mandated by the Council on Social Work Education, the accrediting organization in the United States.
SOCIAL WORK OVERVIEW
Social Work Defined
Social work is «the applied science of helping people achieve an effective level of psychosocial functioning and effecting societal changes to enhance the well-being of all people» (Barker, 2003, p. 408). An historical definition from the National Association of Social Workers’ states Social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal. Social Work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: helping people obtain tangible services; providing counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services; and participating in relevant legislative processes. The practice of social work requires knowledge of human development and behavior; of social, economic, and cultural institutions; and of the interaction of all these factors.
(National Association of Social Workers, 1973, pp. 4-5)
The definition of social work from the United States (U. S.) may not be applicable to other coun-
tries. The International Federation of Social Workers (2005) adopted the following international definition of social work in July 2000:
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being.
[Utilizing] theories of human [behavior] and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (para 1)
Unique Characteristics. There are features of social work that make it distinguishable from other professions in the United States. Kirst-Ashman (2003, pp. 15-19) has identified four unique characteristics of the social work profession: 1) being able to address any issue, regardless of its complexity; 2) being able to address individual issues from a macro practice level, focusing on changing the environment; 3) being an advocate for clients; 4) abiding by the values and ethics of the profession. Organization
The social work profession in the U. S. has its own body of knowledge, ethical code, standards of practice, credentials, membership organization (National Association of Social Workers), specialty mem-
bership organizations, as well as, a nationwide system of educational programs accredited through The Council on Social Work Education. Additionally, all states now require practicing social workers to be licensed or certified, although state standards vary.
Prior to 1955 there were seven separate social work organizations for social workers. The prior seven separate groups related to mental health, social workers whose focus was group practice, community social workers, medical social workers, school social workers, research, and a non-specialty organization. The seven organizations merged into one organization, the National Association of Social Workers, in 1955 (Barker, 2003, p.287). The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is now the main professional membership organization for social workers. Its primary functions include «promoting the professional development of its members, establishing and maintaining professional standards of practice, advancing sound social policies, and providing other services that protect its members and enhance their professional status» (National Association of Social Workers, 2006, para 2). Certification of social workers and quality assurance are promoted through the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), which is a component of the NASW. NASW also sponsors professional conferences and continuing education programs and produces journals, books, and major reference works such as the Encyclopedia of Social Work and The Social Work Dictionary. Growth in the Profession
The number of employed social workers grew, «from [the years] 1960 to 2000 ... 500 % - from 95,000 to 468,000» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 60). Growth in the profession is based upon needs of people, which are also on the rise. The number of older people who need social services is growing rapidly. There is a rise in crime and juvenile delinquency. There is increased concern for services for people with a mental illness, people with a cognitive deficit, people who are lower functioning intellectually, people with HIV/AIDS, and individuals and families in crisis. The need for school social workers is expected to grow due to the rise in violent behavior of children and adolescents. Additional areas of concern requiring services from social workers include immigration issues and disaster training and response.
Employment Opportunities
Zastrow (2004) identified a wide variety of employment settings available for social workers which include: foster care, adoption, probation and parole, public assistance, counseling, services to single parents, day-care services, school social services, services to populations-at-risk, services to veterans, rec-
reational services ., social services in a medical or mental hospital, anti-poverty programs, social services in nursing homes and other services to [elders], marital counseling, drug and alcohol counseling, services to the emotionally disturbed, abortion counseling, family planning services, services to persons with a physical disability, sexual counseling, equal rights services, protective services, services in rehabilitation centers, research, social action, and fundraising. In addition to these direct services, there are employment opportunities in social planning, community organization, consultation, supervision, teaching, and administration. (p. 61)
More than 170 social workers have been elected to a national, state, or local political office, including two U. S. Senator and four U. S. Representatives (National Association of Social Workers, 2005, para 8). The NASW has identified social work as the profession with the largest number of providers of mental health services in the U. S. About 40 % of mental health social workers provide services for the Red Cross after the occurrence of disasters (National Association of Social Workers, 2005, para 7). A large number of social workers are also employed by the Veteran’s Administration to assist veterans (military personnel) and their families (National Association of Social Workers, 2005, para 6).
Social Work Activities
Social workers focus on issues and strengths in human relationships at three levels of practice: micro, mezzo, macro. Micro level practice involves working with individuals. Mezzo level practice involves working with groups, which may also include families. Macro level practice includes working with organizations, communities, and government.
Common social work activities in which social workers engage include casework, case management, group work, group therapy, family therapy, community organization, and administration (Zastrow, 2004). Social casework is a social work activity «aimed at helping individuals on a one-to-one basis to meet personal and social problems . geared to helping clients adjust to their environment or to changing certain social and economic pressures that are adversely affecting them» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 50). Case management is «a procedure to plan, seek, and monitor services from different social agencies and staff on behalf of a client» (Barker, 2003, p. 58). Group work is a social work activity designed to «facilitate the intellectual, emotional and social development of individuals through group activities» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 51). The objectives of this activity include such things as increased socialization or sharing information. «Group therapy is aimed at facilitating the social, behavioral,
and emotional adjustment of individuals through the group process» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 53). Family therapy is a type of group therapy «aimed at helping families with interactional, behavioral, and emotional problems» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 53). Community Organization is a social work activity which includes the process of «stimulating and assisting the local community to evaluate, plan, and coordinate efforts to provide for the community’s health, welfare and recreational needs» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 53). Administration is the activity of «directing the overall program of a social service agency» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 53). Other social work activities include «research, consulting, supervision, planning, program development, and teaching» (Zastrow, 2004, p. 53).
Social Work Roles
There are common social work roles (position or behavior) that social workers perform regardless of the setting or job. Pinderhughes (1995, p. 748) grouped social work roles into five broad categories:
(1) face-to-face caseworker, counselor, enabler, or educator for individuals, family, and groups;
(2) system linking, including broker, case manager, or coordinator;
(3) mediator - arbitrator or advocate;
(4) system maintaining, including administrator, facilitator, expediter, consultant, and team
member; and
(5) researcher consumer
Kirst-Ashman and Hull (2006, p. 25) reported a counselor helps clients work through their difficulties. An educator provides information to clients. A broker links clients to services. Case managers, as mentioned previously, coordinates services provided to clients by agencies. A mediator «resolves arguments or disagreements among micro, mezzo, or macro systems in conflict» (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2006, p. 25). A social worker is an advocate when speaking out on behalf of clients to obtain resources or to promote social and economic justice.
In summary, social work in the United States is a profession that is concerned with interactions between the individual and society. The profession serves the individual, family, group or community in need as well as society at large.
Social Work Values and Ethics
Social work values and ethics, being one of the major fields of theoretical debate, play a very important role in social work practice. Social work practice is not value-free. The very act of intervening in a situation is based upon certain value assumptions. In an increasingly complex and changing society with value systems constantly in flux, every social worker must be knowledgeable about current ethical dilem-
mas and must develop a methodology for analyzing value and ethical conflicts when they emerge. Agency structures need to be in place to assist in this process. The practice of social work in the United States is guided by the professions’ values and ethics as well as legislative and court decisions.
Values are defined as «the customs, beliefs, standards of conduct, and principles considered desirable by a culture, a group of people, or an individual» (Barker, 2003, p. 453). Ethics are defined as «a system of moral principles and perceptions about right versus wrong and the resulting philosophy of conduct that is practiced by an individual, group, profession, or culture» (Barker, 2003, p. 147). The difference between ethics and values is that «values are concerned with what is good and desirable, while ethics deals with what is right and correct» (Loewen-berg, Dolgoff, & Harrington, 2005, p. 18).
Social Work Values. The social work profession in the U. S. operates under the core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, the importance of human relationships, integrity and competence (National Association of Social Workers, 1999). The value of service means to put client needs above the needs of the social worker. Social justice involves working to instill equal rights to all. Social worker’s professional relationships are built on treating people with respect, valuing people’s uniqueness. It is also important for social workers to value how human relationships can aid in the change efforts of people. The value of integrity entails social workers being trustworthy (honest). The sixth value, competence, involves social workers continually developing their skills and only practicing in areas in which they have been trained.
The NASW developed the code of ethics for its members as an effort to develop practice guidelines for everyday professional conduct of social workers. The code covers issues related to the social worker’s conduct, as well as, ethical responsibilities to clients, to colleagues, to settings in which social workers practice, to the social work profession, to broader society, and to responsibilities as professionals (National Association of Social Workers, 1999). The NASW code of ethics serves six purposes.
(1) The Code identifies the core values on which social work’s mission is based.
(2) The Code summarizes broad ethical principles that reflect the profession’s core values and establishes a set of specific ethical standards that should be used to guide social work practice.
(3) The Code is designed to help social workers identify relevant considerations when professional obligations conflict or ethical uncertainties arise.
(4) The Code provides ethical standards to which the general public can hold the social work profession accountable.
(5) The Code socializes practitioners new to the field to social work’s mission, values, ethical principles, and ethical standards.
(6) The Code articulates standards that the social work profession itself can use to assess whether social workers have engaged in unethical conduct. (National Association of Social Workers, 1999, p. 2)
Ethical Frameworks: The interplay between values, ethics, and practice is rarely simple and clear cut. Workers are often faced with an ethical dilemma in which various solutions are equally desirable or undesirable. The code of ethics does not provide a set of rules that prescribe how social workers should act in all situations. Social workers must develop a framework (steps) which lead to a decision for when an ethical dilemma occurs. Specific applications of the ethical code within one’s framework must take into account the context in which the code is being considered and the possibility of conflicts among the code’s values, principles, and standards. The code does not specify which values, principles, and standards are most important and ought to outweigh others in instances when they conflict. Reasonable differences of opinion can, and do, exist among social workers with respect to the ways in which values, ethical principles, and ethical standards should be rank ordered when they conflict.
Social workers should be aware of the impact on ethical decision-making of their clients’ when working through an ethical dilemma. Social workers should also be aware of their own personal values and cultural and religious beliefs and practices. Conflicts between personal and professional values can occur and should be dealt with responsibly. Instances may arise when social workers’ ethical obligations conflict with agency policies or relevant laws or regulations. When such conflicts occur, social workers must make a responsible effort to resolve the conflict in a manner that is consistent with the values, principles, and standards expressed in the code of ethics.
There are a multitude of established frameworks (steps) that can be used to decide how to proceed with an ethical issue. Commonalities in most frameworks include clearly identifying the issue (s), identifying who will be affected by the decision, referring to and using the Code of Ethics, consulting with a supervisor, if one is available, considering all possible consequences (positive and negative), and making a decision. Existing state and federal laws should also be reviewed. All steps through this process should be documented by the social worker faced
with the ethical dilemma (Congress, 2000; Loewen-berg, Dolgoff, & Harrington, 2000; Mattison, 2000; Reamer, 1990; Reamer, 1999; Robbins, 1996; Schneider & Sar, 1998; Speicher, 1998).
Ethical decision making in a given situation must apply the informed judgment of the individual social worker and should also consider how the issues would be judged in a peer review process where the ethical standards of the profession would be applied. NASW has formal procedures to adjudicate ethics complaints filed against its members. The drafters of the code recognized the difficulties involved when professionals attempt to make specific decisions based upon general principles. Therefore, there is a peer review process and peer standards for judging ethical behavior.
A professional code of ethics cannot guarantee ethical behavior. It cannot resolve all ethical issues or disputes or capture the complexity involved in striving to make responsible choices within a moral community. Rather, a code of ethics sets forth values, ethical principles, and ethical standards to which professionals aspire and by which their actions can be judged. Social workers’ ethical behavior should result from their use of their ethical decision-making process as well as their personal commitment to engage in ethical practice.
SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION OVERVIEW
The recognized need for professional social workers and the development of social work education can be traced to the beginning of the 20th Century. Consequently, social work education has a centennial history of fulfilling the role of providing professionals for the social sphere. A well-developed system of preparing professionals in the U. S. higher educational institutions, and an eagerness to share its experience, gives Russian educators a unique possibility of quickly advancing the development of Russian methodological approaches by drawing on existing paradigms.
Purposes of Social Work Education
The Council on Social Work Education (2001) has established the purposes of social work education: ... to prepare competent and effective professionals, to develop social work knowledge, and to provide leadership in the development of service delivery systems. Social work education is grounded in the profession’s history, purposes, and philosophy and is based on a body of knowledge, values, and skills. Social work education enables students to integrate the knowledge, values, and skills of the social work profession for competent practice. (p. 4)
Structure of Social Work Degrees
There are three levels, or degrees, of social work education in the U. S.: Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) degree, Master of Social Work (MSW) degree, and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) in social work/Doctor of Social Work (DSW) degree. Some schools also offer an Associate Degree program related to social work.
An Associates Degree is a two year degree. It is primarily available through two-year colleges. This degree is not recognized, nor accredited, by the accrediting body for social work education, Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). Students graduating with this degree are not considered social workers, but typically as a paraprofessional and assistant.
A Baccalaureate Degree in Social Work (BSW) is one of two levels of social work education accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. The BSW prepares students for generalist social work practice. BSW level social work education must include a liberal arts perspective and the professional foundation content, which prepares students for direct services with client systems of various sizes and types. This level of education takes place in accredited baccalaureate degree granting colleges and universities (Gibbs, 1995). The BSW curriculum is based on a liberal arts perspective as well as a professional foundation which includes content on social work values and ethics, diversity, social and economic justice, populations-at-risk, human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy and services, social work practice, research, and field practicum (Council on Social Work Education, 2004).
The Master’s Degree in Social Work (MSW) is the second level of social work education which is accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. The MSW prepares students for advanced social work practice in an area of concentration or specialty. This level of education takes place in accredited master’s degree granting colleges and universities. The MSW program typically assumes that students have already had a liberal arts background in their undergraduate program and therefore do not include this in their educational curriculum. Curriculum at this level is almost exclusively social work-based courses.
A Doctoral Degree in Social Work (DSW) or Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work (PhD) are the highest level of social work education. The DSW and PhD programs are not accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. There are commonalities among programs but also unique/distinctive objectives as well. For example, some programs are policy-oriented, others are practice-oriented, while still others are research-oriented. A common objective is
that doctoral level education prepares graduates for academia and teaching at the college/university level (Hoffman, 1992; Kolevzon, 1992; Austin, 1986).
Characteristics of the BSW, MSW, and Doctoral Degree
There are some commonalities in the roles of B. S. W. and M. S. W. programs in preparing individuals to be part of the profession of social work. Both provide students with a professional foundation curriculum which contains the common body of knowledge, values, and skills of the profession. This common base is transferable among settings, population groups, and problem areas.
The BSW Professional as a Generalist Practitioner. The BSW graduate is expected to: 1) incorporate the generic foundation for social work and use multilevel problem-solving methodology; 2) use a multiple theoretical orientation, including an ecological systems model that acknowledges the interrelation of human problems, life situations, and social conditions; 3) operate from a knowledge, value, and skill base that is transferable between and among diverse contexts, locations, and problems; 4) use an open assessment process which is not constricted by any particular theoretical, intervention, or approach; and 5) use a selection of strategies or roles for intervention that are made on the basis of the problem, goals, and situation as well as the size of the systems involved (Schatz, Jenkins, & Sheafor, 1990).
Liberal Arts content areas are considered essential foundation components for BSW social work education. The liberal arts component provides an essential foundation and broad academic base for students. It also encourages student development as a rounded human being, an informed citizen, and an individual capable of functioning effectively in an evolving society as well as a capable social work professional. Through the use of a liberal arts perspective the student begins to understand the complexities of human life. It provides a framework for asking disciplined questions, providing focus for what needs to be understood and a scientific way of assessing answers. It exposes the student to important bodies of knowledge and lays a foundation for lifelong learning and responsible citizenship. Typical core areas of liberal arts studies include: scientific and analytic studies; human origin, process and system studies; literary and artistic studies; historical studies; and, multi-cultural studies.
The MSW Professional as a Specialist. «MSW graduates are considered advanced practitioners who can analyze, intervene, and evaluate in ways that are highly differentiated, discriminating, and self-critical» (Morales & Sheafor, 2002, p. 83). They
practice with a high degree of autonomy and skill. Practice at this level requires the mastery of therapeutic techniques and skills as well as generalist practitioner knowledge. The MSW practitioner has a broad conceptual knowledge of research, administration, or planning methods and social problems (Morales & Sheafor, 2002).
Many BSW graduates will work in case management positions. The typical MSW is more likely to be involved in clinical treatment positions and have more supervisory responsibilities (Wolk & Wertheimer, 1999).
The Ph. D. (D. S. W.) Professional. The graduate is expected to provide intellectual and research leadership for the profession. Many graduates move into an academic career as social work educators in BSW, MSW and PhD programs.
Educational Foundation Content
Accredited social work programs in the U. S. must teach content on values and ethics, diversity, populations-at-risk and social and economic justice, human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy and services, social work practice, research, field education, and an advanced curriculum for graduate social work students (discussed previously).
Values and Ethics. As mentioned previously, the NASW has established a specific code of ethics all social workers must follow. Students must be educated on the code of ethics and on how to make ethical decisions. It is imperative student learn how to practice ethically after receiving their social work degree.
Diversity. Social workers must respect people from diverse backgrounds. Students must also learn how to assist people from backgrounds different from their own. Students must be taught about differences and how to effectively work with someone different from themselves.
Populations-at-Risk and Social and Economic Justice. There are specific people in the world who are at-risk due to a multitude of issues. Students must be taught about world issues people face each day. Students must also receive information about the importance of advocating for the equality for all people.
Human Behavior and the Social Environment. Content must be presented to students on human interactions and on the relationship between people and their environments. The understanding of theoretical development and the ability to apply theory when working is critical for the student and for the development of the profession.
Social Welfare Policy and Services. To understand where social work has come from students
must be taught the history of the profession. Included in this historical perspective, students must learn about the role of policy on the delivery of services, on the ability to practice social work, and on the development of new policies at a local, state, federal, and international level.
Social Work Practice. Content in social work educational programs must include the «doing» of social work. Student must learn how to do social work, based upon scientific study. Social work is not simply being kind to someone. Students must be taught a model to use when working with clients that helps to identify issues, develops goals and interventions (including evidence-based interventions), evaluates the outcomes of the interventions and effectiveness of practice, and how to terminate the professional relationship.
Research and Social Work. An important integrative component of social work education is research activities. The Council on Social Work Education specifies that research content must be provided in both the BSW and MSW programs
Qualitative and quantitative research content provides understanding of a scientific, analytic, and ethical approach to building knowledge for practice. The content prepares students to develop, use, and effectively communicate empirically based knowledge, including evidence-based interventions. Research knowledge is used by students to provide high-quality services; to initiate change; to improve practice, policy, and social service delivery; and to evaluate their own practice. (Council on Social Work Education, 2001)
To meet the CSWE requirement, BSW programs can requires students to take a computer usage class, a statistics class, and a social work research class. Students should be able to: 1) Clearly explain the place of research in the profession’s knowledge base; 2) Understand research issues related to gender, race, sexual orientation, culture and class; 3) Understand the political and social context of research and the necessity for maintaining the profession’s ethics and values; 4) Evaluate their professional practice; 5) Be a research consumer, capable of understanding and evaluating research studies on both a national and international sphere; 6) Formulate a problem and give consideration to measurement options as well as implement a realistic research strategy; 7) Demonstrate critical thinking skills in examination and application of the course content.
It is imperative that students who graduate with a social work degree have the ability to be consumers and producers of research, as research is the cornerstone of generating new social work knowledge. Re-
search is the vehicle that can drive the profession in generating and refining social work concepts, theory and methodology to increase effectiveness. Research provides the profession with situation-specific information to base social work practice, program and policy decisions (Reid, 1995). No longer should social workers base their practice on what appears to be good practice. Students need to be taught to base their professional decisions on empirically based social work knowledge and evidence.
Ethics in Social Work Research. Social work research, like social work practice, is guided by the NASW code of ethics. The code has established guidelines specific for evaluation and research. Accordingly, all social workers should be involved in research. The participation in research contributes to the development of the profession. Research may include monitoring and evaluating policies, programs, and interventions used in practice.
There are a number of ethical concerns that a social work researcher should address when planning any research study. One example is that social workers must obtain consent or assent from potential research participants before initiating a study. Participants must also be protected from harm during the study. The participant’s identity should remain confidential or anonymous. No research should be conducted without the approval of a human subjects committee that confirms the researcher’s belief that the benefits of a study outweigh its risks.
Ethical concerns exist even after a study is complete, as subjects can be harmed by the analysis and reporting of the data. Research participants may read the results of the study and may see themselves characterized in a negative light which may threaten their self-images. The researcher should ensure confidentiality of the records and data after the study is completed. The researcher should honestly report the limitations and any negative findings of the study. Rubin and Babbie (2001) state that «science progresses through honesty and openness, and it is retarded by ego defenses and deception.» By being honest about the pitfalls and problems experienced in any research study, the researcher can save those who try to replicate the study from making the same mistakes.
Field Education. Social work education has traditionally embodied a two-pronged approach to professional learning: encouraging the assimilation of knowledge and values through the classroom setting and the assimilation of skills through a field work practicum (internship). Field instruction focuses on (1) learning through experience, (2) reflecting upon one's practice, (3) developing a cognitive framework
to inform practice, and (4) enhancing self-awareness of one's impact upon client systems by an application of new knowledge and behaviors. A specific purpose of field instruction is to help the student link classroom theory and learning with practice activities. Each student is placed in social service agencies to work and learn under the guidance of an experienced and qualified Field Instructor.
The Council on Social Work Education (2001) has set forth the following guiding principles for field education:
Field education is an integral component of social work education anchored in the mission, goals, and educational level of the program. It occurs in settings that reinforce students’ identification with the purposes, values, and ethics of the profession; fosters the integration of empirical and practice-based knowledge; and promotes the development of professional competence. Field education is systematically designed, supervised, coordinated, and evaluated on the basis of criteria by which students demonstrate the achievement of program objectives. (pp. 10-11)
BSW students must complete a minimum of 400 hours of field education and MSW students must complete a minimum of 900 hours of field training (Council on Social Work Education, 2001). CSWE also requires accredited schools of social work to provide orientation and training for social work professionals who supervise and train students in the field.
The Coordinator of Field Placement is a faculty member who provides the guidance and support to the student and the field instructor regarding the practicum design, development, and process. It is the Coordinator of Field Placement who arranges student placements. The assignment to the agency is based on an educational assessment of the student's learning needs, the agency's ability to meet the objectives, and the student’s interest.
There are two types, or structures, of field practica in the U. S. One is a block placement where students spend the entire semester at the agency and do not take classes. One typically finds this type of practicum structure at the MSW level of social work education. The second type of structure is the concurrent placement where students take courses and do the internship together in the semester. One typically finds this type of internship at the BSW level. It can also found at the MSW level.
The practicum experience places demands on the student to develop both professionally and personally. Increased knowledge and skill must be accompanied by increased self-awareness. The student carries the greatest responsibilities in her/his learning and growth process.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, it is important to point out that American society has a sophisticated system of social work and of preparation of specialists for work in this sphere, which has proved its effectiveness over decades. Extensive body of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of education in social work properly adopted and adjusted may be useful to the development of Russian educational models and methods.
References
Austin, D. M. (1986). A history of social work education. Austin, TX: The University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work,
Barker, R. L. (2003). The social work dictionary (5th ed.). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Congress, E. P. (2000). What social workers should know about ethics: Understanding and resolving practice dilemmas. Advances in Social Work, 1 (1), 1-22.
Council on Social Work Education. (2004). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved January 22, 2006, from http://www.cswe.org/
Gibbs, P. (1995). Accreditation of BSW program. Journal of Social Work Education, 31(1), 4-27.
Hoffman, K. S. (1992). Should we support the continuum in social work education? Yes! Journal of Social Work Education, 28, 6-10.
International Federation of Social Workers. (2005). Definition of social work. Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www.ifsw.org/
Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2003). Introduction to social work and social welfare: Critical thinking perspectives. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.
Kirst-Ashman, K. K., and Hull, G. H., Jr. (2006). Understanding generalist practice (4th ed). Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.
Kolevzon. (1992). Should we support the continuum in social work education? No! Journal of Social Work Education, 28, 10-16.
Loewenberg, R., Dolgoff, F. M., & Harrington, D. (2005). Ethical decisions for social work practice (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.
Mattison, M. (2000). Ethical decision making: The person in the process. Social Work, 45, 201-212.
Morales, A. T. & Sheafor, B. W. (2001). Social work: A profession of many faces. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Morales, A. T. & Sheafor, B. W. (2002). The many faces of social workers. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
National Association of Social Workers. (1999). Code of ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. Washington, DC: Author.
National Association of Social Workers. (2005). General facts about social work. Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www.socialworkers.org/pressroom/ swm2006/facts 1. asp
National Association of Social Workers. (2006). The history of NASW. Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www.socialworkers. org/nasw/history.asp
Pinderhughes, E. (1995). Direct practice overview. In R. L. Edwards et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work (19th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 740-751). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Reamer, F. G. (1990). Ethical dilemmas in social service: A guide for social workers (2nd ed.). NY: Columbia University Press.
Reamer, F. G. (1999). Social work values & ethics (2nd ed.). NY: Columbia University Press.
Reid, W. J. (1995). Research overview. In R. L. Edwards et al (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work, (19th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 2040-2053). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Robbins, D. A. (1996). Ethical and legal issues in home health and long-term care. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. (2001). Research methods for social work. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Schneider, R. I., & Sar, B. K. (1998). The relocation and transfer of older persons: When decision-making combines with ethics. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 30 (3/4), 101-115.
Speicher, M. (1998). Ethical reasoning and ethical awareness. Clinical Social Work Journal, 26, 427-432.
Wolk, J. L., & Wertheimer, M. R. (1999). Generalist practice versus case management: An accreditation contradiction. Journal of Social Work Education, 35, 101-114.
Zastrow, C. (2004). Introduction to social work and social welfare (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/ColeThomson Learning.
