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ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ТЕОРИИ КОГНИТИВНОЙ ВИЗУАЛИЗАЦИИ В ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЙ
МЫСЛИ ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИИ И США
Чуричканич И.
аспирант Сумского государственного педагогического университета имени А. С. Макаренко, Сумы, Украина
THE STAGES OF COGNITIVE VISUALIZATION THEORY DEVELOPMENT IN PEDAGOGICAL
THOUGHT OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE USA
Chyrychkanych I.
postgraduate student of Sumy State Pedagogical University named after A.S. Makarenko, Sumy, Ukraine
Аннотация
В статье освещены основные этапы развития теории когнитивной визуализации. Охарактеризованы ключевые черты каждого исторического этапа. Выделены наиболее значительные представители каждого периода и представлены их наиболее значимые достижения. Сравнительная характеристика и анализ поэтапного процесса развития теории когнитивной визуализации дает основания считать, что инфографика как наука постоянно совершенствуется и получает все больше перспектив в сфере бизнеса, рекламы, медицины и образования.
Abstract
The paper introduces the pivotal stages of the cognitive visualization theory development. The key features of each historical stage are characterized in the article. The most outstanding researchers and their significant achievements are highlighted for each stage. The comparative characterization and analysis of the phased development process of the cognitive visualization theory gives the reason to believe that infographics as a science is constantly improving and acquiring ever greater perspectives in the field of business, advertising, medicine and education.
Ключевые слова: теория когнитивной визуализации, инфографика, исследовательский подход, сюжетный подход, трёхмерный, интерактивная графика.
Keywords: cognitive visualization theory, infographics, research approach, plot approach, three-dimensional, interactive graphics.
Introduction. Emergence of a new information society with a visual type of thinking determines the relevance of cognitive visualization implementation into educational process as a way of cognition, processing and interacting with information. The cognitive visualization approach is particularly important for the learning process which involves adapting new knowledge to its rapid and productive learning.
Teachers all over the world strive to achieve the highest results in students teaching and adapt to the new educational environment of today. They seek optimal ways of self-improvement and modernization of the methodological approaches in pedagogical science. In the course of experimental research many teachers have come to the conclusion that cognitive graphics is a necessary and indispensable link that connects learning and modern life and helps students navigate the environment.
To understand the essence of the cognitive-graphic approach and its impact on the improvement of the learning process, it is necessary to study carefully the development of cognitive visualization theory in the historical context, starting from the prerequisites and ending with historical stages of cognitive graphics development.
Analysis of relevant research. It should be noted that pictorial communication with the help of images on bones and stones in caves of North Asia, West Africa and North America is considered a primitive form of cognitive visualization. Pictorial writing has been addressed by such scholars as S. Craft, R. Gregory, D. Hambling, L. Richardson, V. West and others.
Certain manifestations of cognitive graphics are associated with the advent of the Khipushri system in the Inca era. A. Kenny, J. Bogatko, S. Highland, P. Levy were involved in the study of this phenomenon.
The next historical step towards the emergence of cognitive infographics was the development of two-dimensional graphical structures: appearance of geographical maps. Scientists who have studied the cartographic period as a prerequisite of cognitive visualization development were: A. Berlant, V. Litinsky, S. Kobernyk, R. Kovalenko, E. Lagotska and others.
The scientific dimension of research on modern types of cognitive visualization theory is represented by studies of such Ukrainian and foreign educators as N. Holmes, E. Tafte, T. Buzan, R. Kosara, R. Yacob-son, D. Rosenberg, K. Gilbert, A. Crafton, D. Newsom, R. Sung, K. Butcher, M. Hegarty and many others.
The aim of the article is to distinguish the stages of cognitive visualization theory development in the pedagogical thought of Great Britain and the USA.
The methods of investigation are comparative analysis - aimed at determining overall qualities which are common and different as for stages of cognitive visualization theory development in the USA and Great Britain; analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction.
Results. Starting from the pictographic writing, the "quipu" opened by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, cartography, anatomical drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and ending with orthodox icon and Ti-
betan tank, one can speak of prototypes of modern cognitive-visual blocks, which are used in mathematics, physics, linguistics and pedagogy of today.
The innovative nature of European bourgeois culture, formation of anthropogenic civilization, such pivotal introductions in the field of science as analytical geometry, coordinate system, probability theory have created the conditions for the flowering of the first stage of chart-graph infographics.
This period was marked by appearance of various types of diagrams. A well-known medical reformer Florence Nightingale first used the chart called "The Nightingale' s rose" during a speech on the deaths of the British military men from illnesses in the Crimean war. The scientist has the chart on a polar coordinate system with segmental distribution. Each ring in the center of the Arabic grid was used by the chart author as a scale to determine the size of a segment. Florence's chart and statistical analysis managed to prove to skeptical authorities the need to reform the army and reduce the mortality of soldiers by improving sanitation.
The mathematician William Playfer in the book "Commercial and political Atlas" where he considered the relationship between the financial and productive forces of England used his personal types of charts: sector diagrams, line diagrams, radial charts, etc.
In his atlas Playfer demonstrates completely new types of diagrams and introduces new techniques of in-fographics, such as highlighting certain areas in different colors of overlapping circles, using slope lines to represent changes and trends, resizing shapes to compare certain metrics.
Joseph Priestley, by his history chart, tried to schematically skim the entire history of mankind up to the 18th century. This is an example of graphical compression and completion of the great amount of information. The English scientist was able to convey the location of the states, their size; to mark the period from birth to decline of each formation using a timeline that was plotted above the graph and the geographical regions the author decided to place on the right.
The anesthesiologist John Snow (1854) creates a map of cholera disease. This work was not marked by the great complexity of graphical submission but played a major role in the history of infographic development because it revealed the importance of visual presentation of information for analytics. John Snow pointed out on the map of London the so-called cholera outbreaks. After the graphic image it became clear that the places of the disease are not far from the water towers. It struck the local government and the water towers terminated their work. The cholera epidemic has been extinguished thanks to John Snow's infographic analysis.
Summarizing the above mentioned it should be noted that the chart-graph stage of cognitive graphics development was noted by:
• emergence of the main types of charts: linear, sectoral, bar and pie charts;
• visualization of large amount of information;
• understanding the role of visualization as an "analyst";
• minimization in the design of the material;
• appearance of timelines;
• use of geometric shapes;
• use of different color shapes with the advent of color printing machines;
• complication of visualization methods.
It should be noted that after the so-called "Golden Age" in the development of infographics with new techniques and meticulous accuracy of data transmission, cognitive visualization is under stagnation for a while (1900-1950).
The illustrations made by human hand due to the lack of computer technologies development do not arouse sufficient interest. And in some cases, graphic methods of image are perceived negatively. There appears a problem of data distortion.
Only the writings of the visual analyst Otto Newrath revived the confidence and interest in cognitive visualization as such. An Australian sociologist was the founder of the graphic language called Isotype (International System of Typographic Picture Education). In the graphic language of the scientist the symbols were used instead of letters, the number of words was minimized. He was one of the first scientists who was interested in the educational function of the cognitive graphics. Otto believed that the learning process would be much more effective if supported by visualized images and graphic symbols. Education spreadsheets should have a unified visual graphical basis, based on different topics with their own characteristics, depending on the subject.
The gradual computerization of society, the advent of the Internet networks, such programs as open office, Grapher, Color draw (1952-1990) became the starting point for the emergence and development of a new stage in the history of cognitive visualization theory. There were times of transition from the pictographic-pictorial method in statistics to the automation of information visualization. "The popularity of research in semiotics has led to the emergence of new trends in the provision of information: functional, geometrically accurate and logic" [3].
This is a period of active development of in-fographics in journalism. One of the founders of "news graphics" is considered Peter Sullivan. The scientist defines infographics as some combination of words, drawing, photos in order to create a visual communication tool for analytical or artistic news that would help the reader to better understand the concept of the text, placed on newspaper or magazine pages. He believed that text is the last thing the reader sees in the magazine. Infographic images should be vivid, and clearly express the main content of the text.
The term "infographic design" is born, which is inextricably linked to the figure of the Czech-American artist and designer Ladislaw Sutnar. He worked extensively on the methods of forming imaginative thinking and space organization styles. Sutnar is considered to be one of the founders of "joy-art" due to the sunshine of his design work.
This period was marked by the birth of two schools, two approaches to visualizing the thought imagery: research and plot approaches.
The founder of the research approach is rightly considered the father of infographics Professor Edward
Tufte, who systematized the basic tenets of infographics as a science and till today is an icon of modern infographers. The essence of the Tufte's research approach is abandonment of decorative elements in charts that visualize numerical data. Data should be displayed in all the complexity, the use of colors and extra drawings should be minimized. The research approach has justified itself in business analytics, mathematics, data analysis, scientific work.
Another approach was started by journalist - illustrator of New York Times editorials - Nigel Holmes (1978-1994). Holmes' plot approach is opposite to Tufte's one as far as display method is concerned. The author stands for creation of the most attractive images of entertaining content of humor in infographics. Holmes pays special attention to the colors and drawings, expressive illustrations. The scope of this approach can be considered journalism, blogs, marketing and promotional materials. Thus, the research approach implies extraction of the necessary information by the consumer, whereas the plot approach already concludes what the consumer should reach [2].
The further improvement of computer technologies in the early 21st century, the advent of library Di-rectx12, the diversification of ways of content delivery in the media sphere caused emergence and development of the modern stage of multimedia infographics. With the advent of a variety of sophisticated computer programs, there was a need for skilled specialists in the design of higher graphic computer systems. In this connection it is necessary to mention Jeff Ruskin, who started working at the end of the 20th century. In 2000 he published his book "The Humane Interface", which the author devoted to the problems of human-machine interconnections. The author of the book has developed an interface taking into account the basic principles of cognetics, the science that deals with the study of the applied sphere of our mental abilities. This science is also called cognitive design from the word "cognate" -related.
21st century graphics are becoming increasingly complex with texts, photography, media and audio files. This stage is characterized by the diversification of computer infographics types. Raster infographics, animated, 3D, interactive infographics and other types appeared.
In 1963 the American scientist Ivan Sutherland became the creator of a sketchpad program that allowed users to paint dots with a digital pen. He was the father of all bitmap editors. But raster infographics gained the greatest development in the 20th century. Along with other types of computer graphics it has become a powerful tool in the hands of such contemporary graphic designers as Nicholas Felton, Artem Gorbunov, Richard Saul Wurman, Alberto Cairo, Donna M. Vonna, Robert Kosara and others.
If the bitmap infographic is formed of pixels: the smallest elements of the image and looks like a mosaic of multicolored dots; then the vector infographic consists of primitives: lines, rectangles, circles, which have certain parameters - vector commands. The more primitives there are on the screen, the better and more accurate is the object being depicted. The history of vector infographics dates back to 1985 when Copeland founded Corel company to create systems for the layout of print products.
One of the latest versions of the vector graphics editor has serious set of innovations, such as: instant fill color selection, perspective projection, node editing tool, complex gradient fill. Today "Corel Draw" is positioned as a whole suite of graphics applications and not as a standalone graphic editor.
Another kind of graphics - fractal graphics - is one of the most sophisticated and complicated types of informational graphics of the 21st century. Fractal graphics consists of fractals (structures, parts of which are similar to the whole). The small elements of each fractal object repeat the basic properties of the whole object. Today fractal graphics allow you to simulate multicolored intricate images of both wild and non-living nature, design abstract compositions, ornaments, reproduce copies of any painting that is absolutely close to the original. It can be the surface of the ocean, mountains or clouds.
Animated infographics is another kind of graphics that has evolved into the 21st century. Graphics deals with the visual design of static images. This is a field of graphic design firmly incorporated into television, video games, advertising, cinema of today. Motion Design (the second name of animated infographics) is able to visualize both concrete information and abstract ideas through visual effects, audio, animation techniques. It should be noted, that animated graphics are not cartoons, they are not intended to reveal a full story, but merely illustrate certain information. Motion Design uses at ones three channels of information: audio, visual and text, which allows the users to discover for themselves the content of the concept, in the most complete and versatile way. Previously, the Motion Design creation process was time-consuming and costly. With the rapid development of computer technology, this process has become much easier.
Now, the presentations with animated graphics is a great idea for presenting products to business partners; short, vivid entertainment news videos do not bypass Motion Design; advertising saturates the promotional materials with animated graphics. Education uses Motion Graphic's capabilities for accessible and fast explanations of any complex material. The 21st century is the Age of rapid 3D graphics development. 3D in-fographics operates with geometric objects in three-dimensional space. "An object of 3D graphics is represented as a set of surfaces; a minimal surface is called a polygon; most often a triangle is selected as a polygon. The polygon coordinates are a vector (x, y, z) for creating visual effects; the polygon vector is processed in conjunction with three materials: rotations, shifts and scaling" [1]. The task of 3D graphics is to create a volumetric visual image of the object.
The first successes in developing of 3D graphics were the works of Ivan Sutherland in the 20th century. He developed a special program for creating elementary three-dimensional images. The mathematician of the former USSR Konstantinov was able to teach 3D figures to move. The crown of his work was a cat that could change a movement on command. John Blinn introduces the algorithms for realistic image microrelief in 1997. In 1978 Catmell implements in practice the z-puffer method by which it is possible to store information about the depth of each pixel of the image.
Since the 90's with the advent of the Internet and to this day 3D graphics have firmly penetrated our lives. Thanks to high-tech 3D graphics cards scientists are trying to find a cure for the oldest human diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, etc. The achievements of 3D graphics are used in chemistry, applied physics, nanoelectronics.
On the basis of three-dimensional infographics another branch of computer design develops. It is interactive graphics. This kind of infographics allows the user to control the contents of a computer images, to modify and refine its color, shape, size; it provides the ability to communicate with graphic images in a dialogue mode. The first interactive computer-aided design systems appear in the 60's of the 20th century for the design of aircraft cars, architectural structures. The computers on which these systems were operating used to be large and expensive to maintain.
Nowadays the systems of interactive computer graphics that are successfully accumulating geodetic methods, methods of mathematics and physics and capable to realistically represent spacial objects and territories, are gaining popularity. Typical for such a system is operation of entering and editing objects, taking into account their location on the surface of the Earth, formation of various digital models, record in the database, execution of various database queries.
Conclusions. Summarizing the above mentioned, it should be noted that development of the theory of cognitive visualization has passed three stages in historical terms: 1) the stage of infographic diagrams; 2) the story-research stage; 3) the stage of multimedia in-fographics. The first stage was characterized by the distribution of graphs and the emergence of diagrams of four types: circular, sectoral, linear and columnar. The second stage was characterized by the development of two approaches to visualization: research approach and plot one. In the research approach the graphics should be minimalistic, any data should be transmitted as accurately as possible. The storytelling approach focuses on creating compelling images of humorous content. The modern stage is marked by the fact that the graphics are complemented by the photo, audio, video files. The new types of computer graphics appear: raster, vector, animated, three-dimensional and interactive graphics.
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