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Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 5-6 (2020) ' PREMIER Study of art
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UDC: [78.7.034] (410.1) DOI: 10.29013/AJH-20-5.6-54-61
A. V. SOKOLOVA 1
1 The Odessa National A. V. Nezhdanova Academy of Music
THE STAGE INNOVATIONS OF INIGO JONES IN THE PERFORMANCES OF THE ENGLISH COURT MASQUE
Abstract
Objective: to study the stage innovations created by scenographer I. Jones in the English court Masque in the first half of the XVIIth century.
The research methodology assumes the unity of such methodological approaches as cultural-historical, comparative analysis method, and generalization method.
Results: it is established that I. Jones revived interest in ancient art in the aristocratic circles of England. It was revealed that the stage innovations of I. Jones represented a unique fusion of Italian and French innovations and distinctive English culture in scenography in English court Masque. Thanks to the fruitful alliance of I. Jones with the English playwright B. Johnson and other famous screenwriters, as well as the creative influence of I. Jones on King James I and Charles I, the genre of the court Masque reached its peak and perfection.
Scientific novelty lies in an attempt to comprehend the creative innovations of the English architect and stage designer I. Jones in the genre of the Court Mask in the era of the reign of kings James I and Charles I Stuart.
Practical significance: the main results and conclusions of the paper can be in lecture materials, at seminars and practical exercises in higher humanitarian educational institutions.
Keywords: creativity of I. Jones, court Masque, iconology, symbol, stage costumes, stage lighting, scenery, color, style, quality, fabric.
For citation: Sokolova A. V. The stage innovations of Inigo Jones in the performances of the English court masque, Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2020. No.5-6. - P. 54-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29013/AJH-20-5.6-54-61
Introduction Inigo Jones became an unsurpassed master in decorating and stage effects, which in beauty, luxury and effects surpassed the famous Italian scenery and allowed the court Masque to take first place among the existing types of entertainment at the Royal court. I. Jones gave the Masques a visual spectacle that this genre lacked, developing ingenious decorations and magnificent costumes. His theatrical innovations delighted the audience and the recognition of the royal court. Inigo Jones was a man of wide views, with a huge desire for
self-knowledge and the study of everything new. Having been in Italy, a country that did not know its peers in the production of stage equipment for the theatrical stage, and then returned to England, I. Jones resolutely set to work. He skillfully used his experience in English theater performances. Enemies accused I. Jones of blindly copying artistic ideas, in particular, borrowing the stage effects of a festival held in Florence in 1608. However, the practice of copying, as a means of studying or developing one's own artistic style and self-education of I. Jones,
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becomes a means of educating the English aristocratic public, and imitation of great masters as a formative basis for the artist. I. Jones did not attach importance to criticism and very quickly surpassed his teachers in mastery. The enemies of I. Jones had to bow to the genius of the architect and recognize his unsurpassed ability to create stage effects [3].
Research results
Costume design of I. Jones.
Researcher Keith Sturgess defines four principles that I. Jones used to create costumes for Masques: — iconology, as an additional method of interpretation and interpretation of various symbols and images,— color, the choice of which was determined by its reflection on the stage,— style, suggesting convenience and comfort when moving,— the quality of the material and precious j ewelry that was used for sewing costumes [14].
Many symbols are universal, well recognizable, and widely used. A symbol refers to the mind, feelings, and subconscious of a person. Symbols are diverse and can be significant for a particular era, ethnic group, culture, and religion. Symbols become part of society. Symbols convey a specific idea, revealing its meaning.
Icon painters used the symbolism of colors: gold — the color of the highest power of the angels, yellow — the color of the highest authority of angels, white — the symbol of moral purity, black — the pain, sadness and mourning, red — the color of power and its influence, green — the color of the Holy Spirit, the color of spring and flowering [13].
By the end of the XVII century, the majority of the population of England did not know how to read or write, they were actually illiterate, but most people used a variety of symbols when communicating.
Most of the inhabitants of England could accurately determine the status of a person by the color scheme of his clothes, style, the quality of the material of his suit or dress — all this corresponded to the strict hierarchy of English society of the XVII century, as well as the trend of fashion. Certain symbols indicating a person's status could be attached to clothing. This also applies to precious accessories [2]. Thus, the average person was well acquainted with the symbolism of the paintings, for example, watches — the concepts of time, precious vessels — wealth, a shell — a symbol of squandering, etc. [17; 13].
Royal Court Masque — allegorical representation using symbols. Researcher S. Orgel in one of his letters
wrote: "the essence of the Masque is an allegory, myth and symbol. Kings are considered as gods, courtiers as heroes, their actions are emblematic. How viewers see the performance depends on their ability to read what they see. People need allegory and symbolism" [10,16]. S. Orgel also noted that "any painting, whether it be a landscape or a portrait, had its allegorical interpretation, and each emblem had its own motto" [10, 11].
The luxurious costumes used in royal performances were recognized to show the strength, power, power of the royal family and its court. Undoubtedly, I. Jones was familiar with the "Iconology" of the Italian Cesare Ripa, whose work in the field of mythology, literature, art was incredibly popular among writers, artists, and philosophers of that time. C. Ripa studied a huge number of ancient literary sources, ranging from Egyptian, Greek and Roman authors to more modern (Christian) writers, and then selected, illustrated and revealed symbols of mythological concepts, images and symbols. Emblematic collections were published throughout the XVIIth century.
I. Jones used classic symbols in the design of costumes for the court Masques (butterfly—immortality of the soul clock — transience of time, precious vessels — wealth, shell — a symbol of waste, etc.), [17].
The blue color of a stage costume was seen as the color of hope and fidelity, white — the color of integrity and innocence, and yellow — the color of the sun and a symbol of wealth, the color of the highest authority of angels, gold — the color of divine glory, white symbolized moral purity, black — pain, sadness and mourning, red — the color of power and its influence, green — the color of the Holy Spirit, the color of spring and flowering [9; 11]. Yellow was also associated with the color of Judas Iscariot's clothing, although the Bible does not describe the color of Judah's clothing. However, it was yellow color that was used extremely rarely due to the complexity and high cost of its preparation. Another researcher M. Lipman argued that at the beginning of the XVII century, the recipe for cooking yellow, which was based on saffron, was available only to some Mrs. Turner [8].
Interestingly, researcher Allardis Nicholl suggested that viewers would enjoy a significant portion of the decoding of characters used or attached to the costumes in court Masque [1, 39-42].
Costume colors
The intricate play of light on costumes and precious jewelry caused the audience a sense of delight and gen-
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uine lively emotions [6]. It should be noted that often artificial light distorted the colors of suits, which was unacceptable to I. Jones. Indeed, with the help ofa well-chosen color scheme, many problems can be solved — from creating good visibility on the stage to the psychological and physical impact on the audience. So, the blue color of the stage costume in poor lighting appeared black, and green appeared a brown color. Therefore, I. Johns tried to use bright colors that would look advantageous even in low light [6, 134].
Researchers S. Orgel and R. Strong analyzed the color scheme that I. Jones used for his costumes for performances in the royal court. He preferred white, gold, green, silver and pale blue [10].
I. Jones was familiar with the work of Francis Bacon "On Masques and Triumphs", written in 1625. "The colors that look best by candlelight are white, golden, cloves and the color of sea water," wrote F. Bacon [2,7].
Even in "The Masque of Darkness", staged by B. Johnson in 1605 in close collaboration with I. Jones, Queen Anne of Denmark and her maids of honor, dressed up as blacks, with bare arms and black hands, were dressed in azure silver dresses.
In his later sketches, I. Jones extremely rarely leaves written instructions on the colors of the costumes, but gives a detailed description of the cut. This does not mean that the color of the costume was not agreed upon with the costumers in advance. Sometimes the royal person who took part in the performance, or the noble Lords were direct customers of a particular cut, style and color of the stage costume. I. Jones only had to follow certain instructions.
Stage lighting
A well-lit scene was the key to the triumph of presenting the Court Masque. I. Jones preferred the dim light in the hall, however, this was offset by the bright light on the stage itself, noted Robert Graves [4]. Usually, the Masque began with the entrance of the torchbearers, who easily moved around the stage to those parts of it that needed additional lighting.
The huge chandeliers suspended from the ceiling were equipped with hundreds of greasy or wax candles, and the side lighting on the stage created additional lighting sources.
However, where it came to the Antimasque, which served as a prelude to the main part of the Masque, I. Jones favored dim lighting of the scene, which only increased the contrast between Masque and Antimasque.
Costume style and quality in the Court Masque
In the XVI-XVII centuries, the privileged position of the courtier was determined by his participation in the life of the royal court. Subsequent political or professional success was determined not only by intellectual abilities, but also by external details, such as impeccable style and quality of clothing. Thus, the courtier of the royal court contributed to the exaltation of the status of monarch.
Even during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in London, an internal market for the sale of all kinds of fabrics was formed. London merchants offered a wide selection of different fabrics and dyes, which meant that the clothes became more diverse and colorful. Most of the linen and lace were imported from Italy, and in the XVIIth century, Indian chintz appeared on sale. Face masks and low hoods gained great popularity, as they allowed women to move around a busy city without being recognizable. Aristocrats personalized their clothes, not sparing money on lace, ribbons, flowers, embroidery and outlandish patterns, which were a distinctive and purely of individual style [15].
In the XVII century, Europeans, who never had an objective and tolerant attitude towards the inhabitants of England, ridiculed them for their frequent fashion changes and the mixing of clothing styles. So, in the "Venetian Merchant" by V. Shakespeare (1600), the rich heiress Portia teases her fiancé, the English baron: "How oddly he is suited! I think he bought his doublet in Italy, his round hose in France, his bonnet in Germany and his behavior everywhere" [16].
Most of the elite clothes were sewn to order in the most prestigious workshops. The high cost of tailoring was explained by laborious, costly, and expensive production methods, for example, it took several months to produce a small piece of white linen fabric, about fifteen seamstresses were involved in the work, as well as raw material prices, which included finishing the costume with gold and silver. Handmade lace, often used as decoration, was considered one of the most expensive elements of clothing. The quality of lace demonstrated to others the status of its owner.
The clothes that can be seen on the canvases of famous artists of that time often exceeded the cost of the most expensive painting. In 1632, King Charles I paid £100 to the leading court artist, Sir Anthony van Dyck, for a portrait of the royal family, but spent about £5,000 on sewing a costume [10].
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S. Orgel in his work "Illusions of Power" noted that the English ladies of the first half of the XVIIth century were distinguished by unjustifiably high luxury clothing and a variety of styles: an abundance of flowers, the finest feathers on the hats and sleeves of dresses, hair adorned with precious stones, belts inlaid in them jewels, diamond necklaces around the neck, struck even the most daring imagination [10].
The styles of non-fitted dresses with long sleeves helped the ladies to hide any imperfections of the figure, no matter how monstrous they were. Puffy ladies could openly show their breasts due to the deep neckline, and lean, unattractive ladies, on the contrary, chose a style that hides excessive thinness, while both of them remained in the fashion trend. All the ladies were wearing shoes that were virtually masculine, and masks were just as important as the bread at the table. Thus, the English monarchy demonstrated its wealth and splendor not only within the royal court, but also outside its own country.
For the Kings of the Stuarts, luxurious clothing was an integral part of court life. The costume, neatly styled hair, hats, beards, trimmed in the latest fashion, gave an idea of social status, marital status and religious beliefs.
I. Jones characterized clothing as an alternative currency, thanks to which one could strengthen one's status or climb the social ladder.
Anne Rosalind Jones found a close connection between theater and fashion in England in the first half of the XVIIth century. According to their research, companies producing or importing fabrics and lace centrally supplied the Royal Hall of Wight Hall and the Globe Theater, thus cultivating a single style.
Costumes for Court Masques in England in the XVIIth century were created by mixing different styles: modern, ancient Greek and Roman (in the XVIIIth century, designers are redefining their approach to creating costumes in favor of observing historical accuracy). Stage costumes were significantly different from casual wear. First of all, the total weight of the costume was several kilograms due to the presence of copper, gold, silver, precious stones, volumetric ribbons in it, which was an integral part of any costume. The weight of the suit interfered with movement and impaired freedom of movement, although the designers tried to evenly distribute the weight in relation to different parts of the body. Copper, as the main material, was used mainly in armor, and j ewelry and sparkles were attached to suits in
such a way that the light of torches and candles reflected their splendor and luxury [6].
The costumes were made of expensive velvet, brocade, silk, and furs were used. Usually for dancers involved in the Antimasque or playing secondary roles in the Masques, costumes were sewn from inexpensive fabrics, and gold, silver and copper were used to a minimum. For real court Masquers, the highest quality materials and decorations were used. S. Orgel and R. Strong indicated that making the golden and silver braids for the Tethys Masque cost the royal treasury nearly 2,000 pounds [10, 23].
A characteristic feature of men's clothing in England at the beginning of the XVIIth century is the emphasis on the features of the male figure (broad shoulders and long muscular legs), high quality material and sophisticated design. English fashion in the first half of the XVIIth century required wearing tight stockings or breeches. Therefore, the stage costumes of men for the court Masque suggested that the shape and line of the legs were deliberately emphasized [10].
Unfortunately, the stage costumes that were used in masked performances were mostly not preserved. However, thanks to sketches and illustrations dating back to the XVIIth century, we can get an idea of the costumes of that time.
I. Jones created costumes for many performances of the royal Stuart house with great love. He regarded the costume as one ofthe most important elements ofthe play. Inigo Jones costume models were developed for the upper social class, as a result of which he adhered to a hierarchy, which was expressed in the quality of material and luxury jewelry. I. Jones also showed an increased interest in children's costumes, headgear, false beards and hairstyles.
Undoubtedly, I. Jones was well acquainted with the works of the Italian Bernardo Buontalenti. The costumes, created according to the sketches of Bernardo Buontal-enti, were a combination of the Roman style of clothing and modern design, which was also characteristic of the design style of I. Jones.
Queens La Boderie, the French ambassador of that time, wrote: "The wealth of costumes lavishly decorated with jewels, breathtaking hats for ladies make the English Court Masques one of the most luxurious not only in the country, but also on the European continent" [8, 206-207]. John Chamberlain repeated to the Ambassador of France: "On the night of the performance I did not see art, but saw only wealth" [1, 156] so he questioned the artistic value of the court Masque, but not its luxury.
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Innovations in the design of costumes by I. Jones were not always distinguished by sophistication of taste. I. Jones was often criticized by the English aristocracy and foreign ambassadors. Thus, Sir Dudley Carleton, describing the premiere of "Masques of Darkness" staged on the stage of the Royal Palace of White Hall in 1605, noted the hands of Queen Anne of Denmark and her maids of honor bare (which at that time was too frank, and even a vulgar spectacle), and also rich, but excessively light clothing, similar to the clothes of courtesans. "Instead of the Masques befitting the room and the situation, the actors 'faces and hands were painted black to the elbows ... there were no lower skirts under the ladies' dresses, and the length of the skirt was much shorter than decency required" [8, 77]. This shocked many viewers. In 1606, the Florentine Ottaviano Lotti also wrote about the Masque of Darkness: "their black hands were bare to the elbow. It was a disgusting sight ... " [5, 200].
Masquerade dresses were delivered immediately before the presentation of the Masque. All costumes were sewn by hand. The seamstress could not afford to make a mistake. Such a mistake cost the royal court dearly. However, despite the significant financial costs, costumes were rarely used for presentation in other Masques and could not be repaired. They were also not adapted for everyday use.
Masquerade dresses were stored in a special wardrobe, for the maintenance of which a team of several people was hired. These people also looked after other stage props. Often, the costumes were spoiled by moths or mice. The task of the dressing rooms included the careful storage of costumes in special leather chests saturated with all kinds of aromas. However, no literary sources were found that would give an understanding of how long the costumes were kept and whether they were to be destroyed after a certain number of years. Masquerade's costumes for the court Masques were a political currency [10].
Scenery
Innovations in art, in general, influenced the theater in the XVIIth century. The illusion of depth and the creation of promising images, through disappearing lines and scaling of objects, revolutionized the creation of scenery. Architects distinguished themselves by creating proscenium arches, which acted as a kind of stage frame.
Italy, became one of the first countries where the medieval theater system began to be modified, transformed and reborn into a new form, which laid the foundation for the West European theater of modern times.
At the beginning of the XVIIth century, Italian theater was characterized by dividing the stage into plans. This determined the ratio of the depth, width and height of the stage volume. At any width of the stage, the height (from the stage to the ceiling itself) was sufficient so that the most impressive decorations could be moved in any convenient direction (up, down or in the hold of the stage), and the depth of the stage allowed arrangement of voluminous arches that gave the whole stage design a sense of perspective. Thanks to the lighting, all the arches were well lit. The scenery "came to life" and became active participants in the whole theatrical action. Actors could amaze the spectator's imagination, appearing on stage in a huge shell floating in the vast ocean, floating on a cloud or going down to hell. The audience recoiled in horror when the hall was heard with thunder, and lightning flashed here and there, touched by pictures of gentle sunrises and bloody sunsets. To create such revolutionary scenery required remarkable skill. Theater machinery comes to the fore in the art of decoration, and dynamics and plot dominates the art of lighting [10].
S. Serlio was the first designer to use the term "sce-nography" (the art of designing a theatrical performance). S. Serlio used stage space and lighting elements to create a depth effect. The viewer's gaze turned to the vanishing point, which created the illusion of the depth of the scene. Using the sloping sections of the floor of the scene, S. Serlio created a visual effect that made the scene look as if it was farther and smaller in size than it actually was. The flooring itself was solid and durable for safety reasons. Scenery by S. Serlio was based on the ideas of Vitruvius (Roman architect and mechanic) regarding the vanishing point (convergence of parallel lines of an object in a perspective image) [12]. Thus, S. Serlio's innovations were based on neoclassical ideas of Greek and Roman theatrical and compositional design [12]. S. Serlio's contribution to stage art was so widespread that even today his innovations have an impact on modern theater. I. Jones was familiar with the innovative work of influential Italian architect and leading theoretician of architecture Sebastiano Serlio. I. Jones did not have the opportunity to be presented to him personally, since S. Serlio died in 1554, but he undoubtedly studied the main points and discoveries of the set designer, while in Italy [12].
Another influential stage architect was Nicola Sabbatini, an Italian architect and engineer, author of The Guide to the Construction of Scenes and Mechanisms
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in the Theater, published in 1638. The mechanisms developed by N. Sabbattini, at first glance, seemed much more primitive than previously known. However, it was they who made the real revolution in the theater of the Renaissance. The innovations proposed by N. Sabba-tinni include the simultaneous inclusion or dimming of stage light, the colored lighting that he achieved by placing candles behind tinted or colored glass, sliding decorations along grooves in the floor, the sophisticated technique of the illusion of the appearance of fire and waves, as well as the illusion of flight and hovering over the stage. Most of the early stage structures, consisting of an overhead structure, were fragile [7]. This meant that the "aircraft" remained virtually useless, or created a risk to the health and life of the actor, which was disproportionate to the scriptwriter's idea.
N. Sabbatini described in detail several different flight effects in his drawings. A special beam attached to the rear panel lifted the container, platform or basket in which the actor stood. The scenery of the cloud masked a rather complex mechanism. The winch, dropping up and down, gave the impression of flying on a cloud. The reverse mode allowed the actor to effectively go down to the ground. Undoubtedly, I. Jones, during his visit to Italy in about 1598, and then in 1613, appreciated the effectiveness and safety of this design, and borrowed this idea for creating similar decorations in many court Masques [7].
I. Jones was the first to present promising scenery, multi-level installations, mechanisms allowing the scenery to move, and bright and memorable stage effects to the English audience of the Royal Palace. This, undoubtedly, was facilitated by the experience gained by I. Jones in Italy. Also, the interest of I. Jones in French traditions resulted in the development of an individual ornament, which he used in the decoration ofarches for the court Masques [1].
In the design ofthe proscenium, according to I. Jones, it was necessary to strike a balance between decorative abstraction and allegorical content. I. Jones relied on the experience of a group of artists from the Fontainebleau school, that is, painters, architects and others who worked in the Fontainebleau palace, which arose with the direct participation of King Francis I. Thus, sleeping children appear on the frieze of the proscenium in the Masque "Triumph of Albion", whose arrangement on the stage could have been inspired by engravings by the Italian painter F. Primaticcio.
The Royal Hall of the White Hall, which hosted the Masques, was not adapted for theatrical performances.
Thus, all the decorations were built outside the hall, which undoubtedly introduced certain difficulties for the organizers of the Masques. 6. Each new production of the Masque involved the creation of new scenery, costumes, stage effects. For this purpose, the royal court hired the best painters and carpenters [1].
Inigo Jones introduced a promising new set design. In creating the scenery, I. Jones relied on elements of the classical order, prone to variations and susceptible to various combinations and recombination, and subject to certain convention rules. The innovation of I. Jones regarding the scenery, for it is impossible to call plagiarism, was adapting and quickly responding to changes in the theater field, I. Jones adopted and creatively processed new ideas, successfully embodying them on the stage of the Royal Palace of White Hall.
In any case, the decorations for the Masques were created by the hands of the greatest professionals of their time, which undoubtedly include Inigo Jones.
Court Masque financing
Unlike the French theatrical traditions, where the actor provided himself with all the necessary accessories, including stage costumes, at his own expense, in England the actor had to take care only of clean underwear. Lesser aristocrats involved in secondary roles were not included in the circle of people enjoying special royal mercy and were forced to buy costumes with their own money. In fairness, we note that the cost of these suits was much lower, due to the cheap fabric that was used when sewing, and the virtual absence of expensive jewelry. The group of actors that were not subject to the "free costume" rule included professional aristocratic actors who took part in AntiMasque. This investment policy regarding the financing of the presentation of the Masques remained unchanged during the reign of KingJames I. The innovative technologies of I. Jones were generously funded from the treasury ofJames I Stuart. The sets and costumes created by I. Jones were a political currency, for which there was constant demand.
However, after 1634 there was no substantial evidence that King Charles I continued to pay for the costumes of his subjects, since the growing financial problems of the royal court of England did not allow the royal subjects to be showered with bounties.
Conclusions
1. The art of England in the late Renaissance seemed to freeze in time, in contrast to the booming culture of Italy and France.
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2. Designer and set designer I. Jones created a multi-layered world teeming with allegorical symbols. I. Jones, knowingly or unconsciously, revived interest in the ancient art of ancient theatrical performance in the Masque, which successfully combined several types of arts, such as poetry, music, dance and theater.
3. An undoubted innovation for the theatrical stage of that time was the creation of an engine room, which provided a demonstration of all kinds ofnatural elements.
4. In creating stage costumes, I. Jones remains a supporter of luxury, however, moves towards a lightweight and comfortable costume design.
5. I. Jones belonged to a culture where the value of works of art was placed higher than originality, and copying became a methodology.
6. The main idea of the work of I. Jones, successfully implemented, is a synthesis of the best traditions of ancient art, contemporary Italian and French innovations and innovations, multiplied by the characteristic specific features of the life of the Royal court of the Stuart rule. I. Jones innovation ahead of time and received the highest recognition in the Royal court of the Stuarts.
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11. Ravelhofe B. The Early Stuart Masque: Dance, Costume, and Music.- Oxford: OUP Oxford,- 2009.- 334 p. (in English).
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13. Stemp R. The Secret Language of the Renaissance: Decoding the Hidden Symbolism of Italian Art Hardcover.-New York: Sterling Publishing, - 2006. - 224 p. (in English)
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16. Shakespeare homepage: The Merchant ofVenice: [Internet resource].- Mode of access: URL: http://shakespeare. mit.edu/merch ant/full.html (in English).
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Information about the author
Alia Viktorovna Sokolova, PhD, (Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences), Senior Lecturer of Department of Department of Cultural, The Odessa National A. V. Nezhdanova Academy of Music, Ukraine. Address: Ukraine, Odesa, Novoselskogo 69/71, kv. 16, 65023 E-mail: [email protected]; tel.: + 380504923267 ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4841-6342
