CC BY
32
"THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS IN MITIGATING GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE"
1ALAA MOHAMMED HASSAN, 2SAIF NUSSRAT TAWFEEQ ^College of Political Science / University of Tikrit Corresponding Author ( [email protected])
Abstract:
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty established in 1992 under the auspices of the United Nations. It aims to promote global cooperation in combating climate change and adapting to its impacts. The UNFCCC sets out a framework for countries to work together to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system. It recognizes that the climate system is a shared resource that requires international cooperation to protect. One of the key achievements of the UNFCCC was the adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2015. This historic agreement builds upon the principles of the UNFCCC and aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It also emphasizes the need for countries to enhance their adaptive capacity and support developing nations in their climate actions. The UNFCCC facilitates regular meetings called Conferences of the Parties (COP) where countries come together to discuss and negotiate climate-related issues. These COP meetings provide a platform for countries to review progress, share experiences, and strengthen international cooperation in addressing climate change. The United Nations plays a vital role in mobilizing political will, fostering international collaboration, and supports countries in their efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and promote sustainable development. In conclusion, the UNFCCC, under the guidance of the United Nations, serves as a crucial platform for global action on climate change. It provides a framework for international cooperation, facilitates negotiations, and promotes sustainable solutions to address the urgent challenge of climate change.
Keywords: Climate change, global warming, natural disasters, United Nations, Security Council, General Assembly.
INTRODUCTION:
The United Nations has played and continues to play a decisive role in confronting climate change, as it is considered the main global organization concerned with environmental and sustainable development issues. The role of the United Nations in this context aims to promote global cooperation, exchange of knowledge, and develop policies and procedures to meet the challenges of climate change.
The United Nations hosted important international conferences concerned with combating climate change, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement. These conferences aim to enhance international cooperation and achieve strong global cooperation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt countries affected by climate change.
Besides The United Nations has established specialized bodies and programs to combat climate change, such as the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).UNEP) and the United Nations Interactive Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC)And The agreement included the organization of annual conferences known as the "Conference of the Parties" (COP), where government representatives meet to discuss policies and make decisions related to climate change. as well as Global Weather and Climate Forecasting Technology Initiative), so These bodies work to strengthen capacities and provide technical and financial support to countries to adapt to climate change and mitigate its impacts.
And Looking at the future of the United Nations in facing climate change, it is expected that the organization's role in addressing this global challenge will continue, And Structures and tools for global cooperation related to climate change may evolve and strengthen to be more effective and inclusive And These include increasing financing for adaptation and mitigation, promoting innovation and technology sharing, and strengthening international action to achieve climate goals. It is also important to enhance joint action between countries, organizations and various sectors, including the private sector and civil society, to ensure comprehensive cooperation and strong partnership in the field of confronting climate change. Importance:
The importance of the research lies in clarifying the role of the United Nations in limiting climate change to mitigate its harmful effects through the international conferences it held and the agreements and protocols to clarify a solution to the issue of climate change. The problem:
Climate change poses a major challenge to the countries of the world as a result of the effects it leaves behind on environmental security And a reflection on the human being, due to the negative effects that change has on air quality, animal production, human security...etc. Therefore, there were efforts by states and international organizations such as the United Nations as a global organization concerned with resolving issues facing the countries of the world that are difficult to solve by major countries, not to mention the poor countries - developing countries that are unable to solve the problems they face, and therefore to clarify this problem we ask a set of questions : 1 - What is the concept of climate change, its causes and effects on humanity? 4- What is the role of the United Nations in limiting climate change?
3- What is the future of the climate change challenge in light of the solutions of the United Nations and its associated organizations?
Hypothesis: To answer the above problem, the following hypothesis was formulated: that the role of the United Nations Organization played a major role in limiting climate change and mitigating its harmful negative effects in light of the holding of conferences, agreements, seminars and procedures, as well as decisions to reduce this global challenge.
RESEARCH METHODS:
The descriptive approach was relied upon to describe the roles played by the United Nations
Organization to limit climate change.
The first requirement The concept of climate change
Climate change is called the climate bomb, and some put it in second place after the nuclear bomb in terms of its importance and its dangerous effects on life on the planet. 2-20) Some attribute it to human causes due to greenhouse gases resulting from air pollution, while others attribute it to a decrease in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface by 16% in Britain, 30% in Russia, and 10% in the United States during the twentieth century, and among the results of climate change is drought. air, lack of precipitation, low level water resources, which causes imbalances in social, political and economic systems.1
Climate change is a long-term phenomenon related to the change of the Earth's climate system. Refers to changes in the natural pattern of climate over a long period, which affect temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity, and other changes in the atmospheric environment. Scientific data and research indicate that the current climate change is characterized by a rise in global temperatures as a result of an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This increase in greenhouse gases is mainly due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels (such as oil, coal and natural gas), manufacturing and agriculture.
(1)Kazem Abdel-Wahhab, The Effect of Climate Change on Relative Humidity Trends in Iraq, Journal of the College of Education, Issue 10, (Wasit: 2011), pp. 268-267.
An increase in global temperatures leads to negative impacts on ecosystems and the environment. These impacts include sea level rise from melting glaciers and rising marine temperatures, changes in the rainfall pattern with increased drought in some areas and increased flooding in others, and impacts on biodiversity and species extinction.1
Adapting societies to climate change and reducing carbon emissions from human activities is an important part of the response to this phenomenon. Efforts to combat climate change include encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and adopting sustainable behaviors in various sectors such as transport, industry and agriculture. Combating climate change requires joint efforts and international cooperation, as countries, communities and individuals must take effective measures to reduce the negative impacts of climate change and achieve sustainable development.
He knows climate change that he (The change in the prevailing climatic systems, whether directly or indirectly, as a result of human activity that leads to changes in the environmental systems and disruption of the components of the atmosphere, as well as the natural fluctuations that occur in the climate in successive periods of time) 2.
As for United Nations Convention (UNFCCC)Lost known as climate change:(Climate shift from one state to another due directly or indirectly to human activities that cause change in the chemical composition of the atmosphere globally) 3
Climate is the primary control over the distribution of agricultural plant life, animal life, and
everything related to agricultural activity.4
The second requirement The causes of climate change
The causes of climate change are divided into two groups: natural causes and human causes. Scientists divide them into two groups: the internal causes, which are either natural or human, or both, and the external causes, which are astronomical: 1-Normal internal causes include: i- Natural causes include:
- Change theory to radiation Solar: i.e. the energy released by the sun, which is responsible for all the light and thermal energy from the rays that the sun emits towards the earth. It is a source of energy in the atmosphere and its rays are the main driver of the weather phenomena that occur in the atmosphere. It is responsible for atmospheric disturbances, clouds, rain, wind and lightning. The abundance of solar energy is The reason is the continuous movement of the atmosphere, its overpowering and the change of its weather. The theory of solar radiation is divided into hypotheses, which are5-
- The sunspot hypothesis: spots that are dark in color appear on the surface of the sun, and their temperature is (4000) C compared to the temperature of the sun, which is (6000) C, which makes sunspots more controversial than the areas around them despite their own luminosity. The spots are in the form of Groups moving on the surface of the sun are called the solar palm, and it is one
1 Saif Nusrat Tawfiq Al Hermozi %J Tikrit Journal for Political Science, "The New Actors of the International Order in the Twenty-First Century," no. 11 (2017). s129-165
(2)Harbiye Shirza Aziz, Yusuf Muhammad Ali Hatim Al-Hathal, Climate Change Indicators for Climatic Elements in Diyala Governorate, Diyala Journal, Issue 88, (Diyala: 2021), p. 1.
(3)Nisreen Al-Shahat Al-Sabahi, Climate Change and its Impact on Conflicts in East Africa, (Cairo: Al-Arabi for Publishing and Distribution, 2023), p. 22.
(4)Abdul -Zahra Shalash Al-Atabi, Shifa Hassan Kazem, Economic and political challenges resulting from climate change in the continent of Africa, Journal of the College of Basic Education, Volume 22, Number 93, (Al-Mustansiriya: 2016), p. 340.
(5)Hussein Jabri and Sami Mutlaq Al-Shammari, Climate Change and its Impact on the Temperature of Iraq, Journal of the College of Basic Education, Issue 12, (Babylon: 2013), pp. 121-122.
of the theories that deals with the difference in the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth.
- The hypothesis of the movement of the solar system: the reasons for the difference in the solar system are not clear, and it is believed that there are nebulous clouds between the earth and the sun during the movement of the earth around the sun and the movement of the entire solar system around the center of the galaxy (the Milky Way), which results in a decrease in the amount of radiation reaching the surface of the earth leading to a change the climate1
- Volcanoes: Volcanoes, when erupting, push huge amounts of water vapor and ash-laden gases into the air, wreaking havoc on the environment and people. These volcanoes spew fine dust that leads to a decrease in temperature because most of them remain in the upper layers of the gaseous envelope, such as the eruption of the Chichon volcano in Mexico in 1982 and the Fuego volcano. in Guatemala in 1984 and Nevada and Del Ruiz volcanoes in Colombia in 1985)2-
B: Unnatural (human) causes, including 3:
- Burning fossil fuels: Since the establishment of the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century, human activities have increased and led to the concentration of greenhouse gases in addition to other types of pollutants as a result of burning large quantities of fossil fuels used in various production processes, as well as the increase in population growth, which led to an increase in demand for production. After the technological development in the twentieth century and the use of mechanical machinery that led to the acceleration of the volume of production, population growth requires an increase in consumption rates, such as food, appliances and energy, and this increase leads to various pollutants of solid, liquid and gaseous substances that lead to global warming and then raise the temperature.
- Deforestation and vegetation: Deforestation, whether by burning or cutting for the purpose of converting it into agricultural areas or cutting its wood for industrial use or use as a fuel source leads to negative results on the climate, including depriving the environment of a natural generator of oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and changing the use of land. It leads to a change in the ratio of the albedo, as the albedo is high in the barren areas and low in the areas covered with vegetation, and then leads to a rise in temperature as well as the expansion of cities at the expense of green lands and an increase in the difference between the city and the countryside and a difference in the local climatic conditions of the city leading to the expansion of the so-called heat island .
2-External causes, including purely astronomical factors, which are external factors because they occur outside the Earth, and include 4:
i- Solar Activity Fluctuation: The annual rate of direct solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface changes from time to time And the other This change consists of two reasons: the change in the stability of solar radiation as a result of astronomical factors represented by solar activity, the
(1)Muhammad Rahim Muhammad Abd al-Dulaimi, "Indicators of climate change and their impact on the productivity of some agricultural crops in Anbar Governorate," an unpublished master's thesis, Anbar University, Anbar, 2020, pp. 15-17.
(2)Reda Abdul-Jabbar Al-Shammari, Hussein Ali Abdul-Hussein, Global Climate Change between the Benefiting and Affected Countries, Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Human Sciences, Volume 11, Number 1, (Al-Qadisiyah: 2008), p. 346.
(3)Orph an Nadia, Climate Change: Causes..Future Repercussions..Adaptive Mechanisms, Journal of Human Rights Studies, Volume 9, Number 1, (Algeria: 2022), p. 258.
(4)Qasim Yousef Al-Shammari, Dalal Farhan, Climate Change and its Impact on the Health and Comfort of People, Journal of Human Sciences, Volume 1, Number 11, (Babylon: 2012), pp. 258-262
appearance of sunspots, and the other reason is the change in the transparency of the atmosphere due to the presence of minute impurities stuck in the upper layers.
Ground engineering mechanism: This mechanism plays a major role in the occurrence of changes and includes:
- Earth's orbit elongation: orbit the earth Around the sun, it changes in a regular way due to the overlap of the gravitational effect between the planets of the solar system. The earth revolves around the sun in an orbit close to the circle, so that the farthest distance between them is about 147.5 million km. The elongation of the earth's orbit ranges between almost zero. A complete cycle, that is, between a maximum elongation of 5% and a subsequent maximum elongation of about 197 thousand years, and the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth during the year remains almost constant.
- Early equinoxes: The date of occurrence of any season does not occur at the same time each year. Rather, the date of its occurrence in the following year precedes the date of its occurrence in the year preceding it by about 20 minutes due to the difference in the inclination of the equatorial surface of the Earth during its revolution around the sun and the gravity that the Earth is exposed to from the planets. The other solar system, and it takes the Earth to complete its retreat from a point in its orbit around the Sun and its return to the same point again about 21 thousand years, meaning that the Earth is farthest from the Sun at the present time. The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the Earth and the Sun This quantity ranges between 0.966-1.033, or a difference of about 6.5%. The southern summer is hotter than its northern counterpart, and its winter is colder than the winter of the northern hemisphere.
- Earth's axis tilt: The Earth's axis is the angle that the surface that passes in the equatorial circle places with the feature (the highest point) in the celestial dome, or it is the angle that this surface places with the surface parallel to the Earth's orbit around the sun. Currently, the Earth's axis is about 23.5° inclined. The two latitude circles that pass 23.5 degrees north and south are called the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, and the sun apparently moves between these two orbits. The winter and summer solstice occurs in the northern hemisphere when the sun is perpendicular to the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer.1-
The third requirement: effects of climate change
Many climate changeArchaeologyWhich he leaves on all sides, and among these effects are:
1- Effects on food: Climate change causes famine, i.e. the inability of the group to access food, which leads to mass death, and this poses a threat to the lives of the population. In 2006, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations warned of large numbers of deaths in Kenya due to famine and food shortages In addition to areas in Somalia and Ethiopia that did not receive rain, which led to the death of herds of livestock due to the lack of food and water, and drought led to the population losing their sources of livelihood.2
2- Effects on human health: climate change produces air pollution, and the availability of food quality and drinking water, as a result, the safety of these factors is important for preserving human health. Climate change on human health leads to the spread of insects that carry infectious diseases, and the rise in temperature affects the work of some medicines that are used to treat bones. High temperatures affect people, causing many health problems, sunstroke, muscle spasm, heart diseases respiratory system, dehydration, kidney problems, allergy3
3- Effects on the agricultural sector: Climate change has an impact on agriculture in several ways, such as a change in the rate of temperature, precipitation, severe climate variability
(1)Qassem YoussefAl-ShammariDalal Farhan, a previously mentioned source, pg. 262.
(2)Abdel -Zahra Shalash Al-Atabi, Shefa Hassan Kazem, a previously mentioned source, p. 336.
(3)Abdel Samie Samaan Abdel Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Journal of Studies in University Education, Issue 56, (Cairo: 2022), p. 21.
such as heat waves, which leads to the emergence of pests and diseases that affect plants, changes in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and ozone layer concentrations. Close to the earth's surface affects the nutritional quality of some foods. Climate change affects agriculture, so these effects appear unevenly in all parts of the world.1It is likely that future climate change will negatively affect crop production in countries located at low latitudes, while the effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative, as floods and droughts will occur that prevent crop growth, in addition to the growth of weeds and fungi. and pests that inhibit crop growth.2
4- Effects on animal production: The decrease in the productivity of agricultural crops results in a change in the map of the geographical distribution of agricultural crops, and the increase in the need for water as a result of high temperatures and high evaporation rate. Soil erosion rates, reduce the possibility of cultivation of marginal areas, increase in temperature affects the performance of farm animals and thus on the production of milk and meat) 3.
5- Effects on water resources: the increase in water evaporation leads to the absorption of water from the oceans, seas, soil and plants, heavy rains lead to floods, leading to the death of large numbers of people and animals, temperature changes affect the change in the main sea currents. Climate change affects the increase in desertification rates, high temperatures cause acceleration in the transfer of water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere, increase drought and lead to damage to water resources in the future, and affect population growth. And the higher the standard of living, the change of agricultural paths. Changing economic activities, increasing demand for water and energy, which leads to conflicts over water.4
6- Impacts on Security: Climate change is a threat multiplier, a driver of conflict and a source of threat to global security. Environmental degradation and scarcity of natural resources may lead to violence and conflicts. Environmental degradation interacts with social and economic factors, leading to disputes and conflicts. Environmental degradation contributes to the emergence of social and political unrest, and this contribution indirectly, such as increasing threats to food security and water resources, increasing poverty. , inequality 5
7- Effects on air quality: Climate change will exacerbate local, regional and global air pollution, and delay the recovery of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Pollutant emissions, ozone layer depletion, environmental system change and land degradation affect the global climate, through sources of greenhouse gases, so the atmosphere becomes warmer. And the pollutants will remain in the atmosphere for a longer period, and will result in diseases. Global warming will lead to the organic decomposition of the public discharged waste open to the air. Accordingly, emissions of many pollutants in the atmosphere will intensify, and lead to an increase in water vapor, which leads to the strengthening of particle adhesion with water vapor, and as a result, The increasing emissions of pollutants and emissions of greenhouse
1 See: vHassan, Alaa Mohammed, and Saif Nusrat Tawfiq. "The effects of lack of food security." Nasaq 37.5 (2023). p 61-72
(2)Mohamed Obeidi, The Effects of Climate Change on Human Security and Human Rights, Journal of Rights and Human Sciences, Volume 9, Number 1, (Algeria: 2016), p. 154.
(3)Karam Salam Abdel Raouf Salam, The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes, in a conference: The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes: The Democratic Center for Strategic and Economic Studies, Berlin, 2022, p. 117.
(4)Muhammad Noman Nofal, Economics of Climate Change, Impacts and Policies, Expert Meetings Series, Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, Issue 24, (Kuwait: 2007), p.11.
(5)Houria Amman, "The Impact of Climate Change Threats on Environmental Security," an unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ibn Khaldoun University, Tiarat, Algeria, 2020, p. 50.
gases will disrupt the photochemical cycle and cause an increase in the ozone concentration in the troposphere.1'.
8- Effects on migration: Individuals and families are looking for places where the basics of life are available and less exposed to risks(2). To clarify which countries are most vulnerable to the impact of climate change, as shown in the table below? Schedule (1) The country's most vulnerable to the impact of climate change with the type of impact
Agriculture Sea level rise storms Floods Drought
Sudan Vietnam The Philippines Bangladesh Malawi
Senegal Egypt Bangladesh China Ethiopia
Zimbabwe Tunisia Madagascar India Zimbabwe
Financial Libya Vietnam Cambodia India
Zambia Indonesia Moldova Mozambique Mozambique
Morocco Mauritania Mongolia Laos Niger
Niger China Haiti Pakistan Mauritania
India Mexico Samoa Sri Lanka Eritrea
Malawi Myanmar Tonga Thailand Sudan
Algeria Bangladesh China Vietnam Chad
Ethiopia Senegal Honduras Boys Kenya
Pakistan Fiji Rwanda Iran
Saudi Arabia Iraq
Source: The twelve countries most affected by climate change,The New Humanitarian, 1/12/2015, available at:https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/environment-and-disaste View date (10/20/2022).
The fourth requirement: the role of the United Nations in limiting climate change
The United Nations has a role in protecting the environment through the conferences it has organized and the agreements, in addition to that the organs of the United Nations represented by the General Assembly and the Security Council and the resolutions issued by these two organs.
International conferences, protocols and agreements on climate change
There are many international conferences and agreements held in many countries of the world to discuss the problem of climate change and develop solutions and mechanisms to confront them, including:
First: International conferences on climate change
1- The United Nations Conference on the Environment, Stockholm 5-16/6/1972: The first environmental protection conference was held in Sweden and was attended by more than 115 countries. Through concern for the environment and its protection was issued About this conference "Declaration on the Human Environment" which includes the first international document of the principles of relations between countries in the field of the environment and how to deal with it. One of its principles is that every person has the right to live in a healthy environment, and it is his duty to protect and improve it for the benefit of future generations, and
(1)The same source, pp. 48-54.
(2)The same source, p. 38.
the state bears the responsibility not to harm the environment in other countries, and international cooperation for the purpose of reaching an environmental protection law 1
2- Earth Summit Rio de Janeiro 1992: Held in Brazil at the end of the eighties of the twentieth century, international concern reached its climax about the possibility that the release of greenhouse gases arising from human activities caused an energy imbalance, leading to a rise in temperature and climate change. The United Nations General Assembly convened a conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which resulted in a framework treaty on climate change. food production risk, and allow for sustainable economic development)2).The United States of America had a prominent role in supporting the United Nations through financial institutions, whether through grants and donations, or imposing some sanctions on some companies and entities that do not abide by its decisions related to climate change.3 The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in the following:
> The Rio Declaration on the Environment: It included 27 principles and aims to urge international powers to establish a new and just global partnership, by creating new levels of cooperation between countries and concluding international agreements that serve the interests of each country and protect the global environmental system. These principles agree that the human being is the center of sustainable development, and guarantees him the right to a healthy life, which is compatible with the human environment, and stipulates that human beings are at the core of concerns related to sustainable development. Treaties, agreements and conferences have begun to incorporate this principle into their programs such as the Desertification Convention, The work of the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 in Cairo, and the recognition of the right of states to sovereignty with regard to the exploitation of their resources in accordance with their environmental and development policies, provided that they do not cause damage to the environment of other countries, and not to neglect the right of future generations to development, the Rio Declaration does not constitute a law or an international instrument binding on the agreed members but it is a moral obligation4.
> Agenda for the 21st Century Note 21: It is the basic document issued by the Rio Conference, which is a plan for development action aimed at analyzing the processes that affect the Earth's atmosphere, such as physical, chemical and geological processes, on the one hand, and on the other hand, strengthening international cooperation, mitigation measures and response to address these Changes, promoting sustainable development through energy development, minimizing harmful effects on the atmosphere, and controlling transportation to reduce emissions at the local, national and international levels. Developing safe and less polluting technology, developing land and marine resources to reduce gas emissions, and depleting ozone from the upper atmosphere by putting strategically Tilt aims to mitigate the negative effects of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface, and in the field of transboundary air pollution, to develop and apply
(1)Suhair Ibrahim Hajim Al-Hiti, International Responsibility for Environmental Damage, 1st Edition, (Syria: Dar and Raslan Foundation for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2008), p. 31.
(2)Mona Tawahriya, Climate Change and the Stakes of International Environmental Policy, Journal of North African Economics, Volume 16, Number 22, (Algeria: 2020), pp. 355-356.
3 Saif Nussrat Tawfeeq, Karrar Noori Hammed, and Jumana Khaldon %J Tikrit Journal For Political Science Saadoun, "The Role of Us Financial Institutions in the International Economic Sanctions Mechanism," no. 26 (2022).. 121-147
(4)Hajar Arouj, International Mechanisms to Confront Environmental Threats, Researcher Journal for Academic Studies, Issue 13, (Algeria: 2018), p. 659.
comprehensive technology to measure transboundary air pollution, industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters, and the dependent or indirect destruction of human resources.1.
3- Johannesburg conference Between 26-4/9/2002: a conference held by the United Nations in Johannesburg, South Africa, under the title The World Summit on Sustainable Development emphasized three pillars: economic efficiency, climate justice, and environmental preservation And protecting them, this conference received attention from environmental experts and specialists at the global level, and the conference came out with a long plan of action whose provisions are twice the progress made from the Rio Conference in 1992, reducing the number of people deprived of sanitation and providing them with safe drinking water by 2015 and using clean energy and renewable energy Raising energy efficiency in poor countries, and in the field of health, the summit agreed that by 2020 chemicals will be used and manufactured in ways that do not harm society and the environment. Programs to achieve sustainable agriculture, and the countries of the world pledged to reduce the loss of environmental diversity, reduce the rate of extinction of animals and plants, and restore fisheries to their maximum production.2.
4- The Bali Conference in the period 3-7/12/2007: This conference was held in Bali, Indonesia, to discuss the issue of climate change for the purpose of setting goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in developed and developing countries, and to cooperate within the framework of the agreement in the long term.3
5- Copenhagen Climate Conference 7-18/12/2009: Held under the auspices of the United Nations, representatives of 192 countries met in the Bella Center area in the center of the Danish capital, for the purpose of researching the issue of climate change, and mapping out a strategy for greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the combustion of coal, oil, and gas.4.
6- Cancun Conference 2010: This conference was held in Mexico to discuss the phenomenon of climate change. After negotiations, the participants reached many decisions to combat climate change and its repercussions on international security, including mitigating emissions, ensuring accountability for them, and promoting clean energy markets around the world.5).
7- Durban Conference 2011: This conference was held in South Africa on climate change for the purpose of reaching a new international agreement to protect the environment.6
8- Climate Summit 2014: This conference was held in New York and announced many initiatives and commitments, such as protecting forests and working to establish a global alliance for the purpose of smart agriculture to adapt to climate change.7
(1)c. Nasser Elias, "The Role of the United Nations Organization in Preserving the Global Ecosystem," an unpublished master's thesis, University of Lakhdar Batna, Algeria, 2013, p. 106.
(2)Tariq Rashi, A reading of the march of the United Nations Organization in addressing the problem of climate change during the period 1972-2018, Journal of the Research Unit in Human Resources Development, Volume 11, Number 3, (Algeria: 2020), pp. 208-209.
(3)Habib Maarouf, The Issue of Global Climate Change Between the Failures of Kyoto and Paris Expectations, 1st Edition, (Lebanon: Dar Al-Farabi, 2016), pp. 24-25.
(4)Engy Ahmed Abdel-Ghany Mustafa, International Management of the Climate Change Issue, Journal of the College of Politics and Economics, Issue 3, (Cairo: 2009), p. 157.
(5)Mohamed Majdan, Global Security, a study on its concept and ways to achieve it, Algerian Journal of Political Science and International Relations, No. 8, (Algeria: 2017), p. 61.
(6)Dina Shaban, Allocating the Africa Pavilion at the Climate ConferenceCOP27 for the Development of the Continent, Al Shorouk, 5/11/2022, available at:
https://www.shorouknews.com/mobile/news/view.aspx?cdate=05112022&idView date (12/13/2022).
(7)Muhammad Majdan, a previously mentioned source, pg. 61.
9- Katowice Conference 2018: Held in Poland The countries participating in the conference reached a collective agreement outlining the actual steps to implement the Paris Agreement, to control the rate of temperature rise and keep it below two degrees Celsius. This is an actual beginning to fulfill commitments to reduce dangerous emissions that exacerbate climate change, and the conference focused on measures to reduce emissions by half before 2030 in order to reduce global warming by one and a half degrees Celsius. One of the most important things that came out in the conference was a "rulebook" that clarified the details of the implementation of the historic Paris Agreement.1
10- Madrid Conference 2019: Held in Spain, according to which 66 countries, including Germany, committed themselves to achieving the goal of carbon neutrality until 2050, which means that net emissions must drop to zero by the middle of the century. to fulfill their commitments to tighten the climate goals for the year 2030, without this document including any binding measures on countries, and the document only stresses international cooperation.2
11- Ambition Summit 2020: Held in the United Kingdom, it is a new boom in action and ambition. Summit leaders took a big step towards a resilient and net-zero future, and made ambitious new commitments and urgent actions to confront the problem of climate change. The decisions of the Ambition Summit showed that climate action and ambition are on the rise. And that the countries that represent about (65%) of global carbon dioxide emissions, and about (70%) of the global economy, will commit to reaching net zero emissions or carbon neutrality in the coming years, during this summit urged the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Iraq in order to take fair climate measures, because it is one of the most climate-affected countries in the world.3).
12- Glasgow Conference 2021: Held in the United Kingdom and in which it was agreed to continue negotiations on support and financing, and emphasized accelerating the reduction of its emissions, by presenting new national plans by 2022, with the adoption of policies for the transition towards low-emission energy, through the deployment of clean energy generation and efficiency measures. energy, and accelerating the phase-out of coal and fossil fuel energy.4
Second: Protocols and agreements related to climate change
1- 1997 Kyoto Protocol: A contract was held in Japan for the purpose of protecting the climate, and it is the first binding agreement for all countries to reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to limit damage to the Earth's climate system. Responsibility according to the conditions and degree of progress of the state, and holding developed countries primarily responsible for emissions of gases in the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol includes two sets of obligations. 38 developed countries reduce greenhouse gas emissions in different proportions, preserve green areas and increase them, such as forests, study the rates of emissions of these gases and their disadvantages, educate people in the field of climate change to reduce harmful gases, and produce and develop environmentally friendly technologies. Developed countries have pledgedBy transferring technology transfer activities to developing and poor countries and supporting the efforts of developing countries to confront the harmful effects of climate change.5
2- Paris Agreement 2005: Signed by 196 countries, it set the goal of limiting global warming to 2 degrees Celsius in 2050. It stipulates the principles of justice and shared responsibility for all in facing climate change, taking into account the differences between countries in terms of
(1)Ahmed Fawzi Al-Rawi witnessed, a previously mentioned source, pg. 90.
(2)Same source, pg. 91.
(3)Amal Fawzi Ahmed Awad, Climate Justice and the Protection of Humanity (Principles, Rights, Challenges, International Efforts), 1st edition, (Berlin: Arab Democratic Center, 2023), p. 42.
(4)Abd al-Masih Samaan Abd al-Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Journal of Studies in University Education, Issue 56, (Cairo: 2022), p. 25.
(5)Hisham Mohamed Bashir, Climate Justice from the Perspective of International Law, Journal of the College of Politics and Economics, Volume 16, Number 15, (Cairo: 2022), 354-354.
capabilities and responsibility. The agreement does not commit any country to specific amounts of
emissions, but it calls on each country to provide voluntary national contributions. 1
Third:The role of the General Assembly and Council in reducing climate change
The General Assembly and the Security Council have a role in addressing the phenomenon of
climate change and mitigating the harmful effects resulting from it, through its discussions and the
resolutions it issues.
a-The role of the General Assembly in reducing climate change
The General Assembly forum to hold a discussion to face the challenge of climate change, and to support negotiations within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention, and the debate held by the General Assembly and the meetings on climate change that the Secretary-General was called to convene is evidence of the seriousness of Member States to commit to addressing this phenomenon. Secretary-General "Antonio Guterres" called on governments to take climate measures to recover from the Covid-19 epidemic that swept the world, such as investing in green jobs, stopping providing operations to polluting industries, stopping fossil fuel subsidies, taking into account climate risks in all financial and political decisions, cooperation and not lagging behind2
One of the resolutions of the General Assembly on the issue of climate change was Resolution No. 44/224 of 22/12/1989 on international cooperation in monitoring and evaluating threats to the environment, preparing to confront them and providing emergency assistance. And Resolution No. 44/228 of 22/12/1989 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. And Resolution No. 207/24 of 12/22 regarding considering climate change a source of concern for humanity.)3.
Resolution No. 45/212 of 12/21/1989, Resolution No. 44/207 of 22/12/1989, Resolution No. 45/212 of 31/12/1990, and Resolution No. 46/169 of 19/12/1991 on climate protection for the benefit of present and future generations of humanity. And Resolution No. 44/206 of 22/12/1989 regarding the harmful effects that may arise from rising sea levels on islands and coastal areas, especially low-lying coastal areas. And Resolution No. 44/172 of 12/19/1989 regarding the implementation of the action plan to combat desertification.4 B-The role of the Security Council in limiting climate change
The Security Council has an important role in the issue of climate change, through its efforts aimed at expanding the concept of international security, and deepening it within the framework of the new international order. Wars and military conflicts between countries do not necessarily mean the restoration of global peace and security. Non-military threats have become an actual threat to international peace and security, represented in the economic, humanitarian and environmental fields. threat to international peace and security)5
In 2018, the Security Council held a session to discuss the relationship between climate change and global conflicts and deepen understanding of climate-related security risks. The Council should address climate change as a security risk. The speakers indicated that climate change will
(1)Marwa Fikri, An Introduction to International Relations, The Crisis of Globalization and Globalization Prospects, 1st Edition, (Beirut: The Lebanese Book House, 2021), p. 450.
(2)Wafia Qirdaniz, "International Protection of the Environment from Climate Change," an unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Algiers 1 Ben Youssef Ben Khadda, Algeria, 2022, p. 87.
(3)Abdel -Al-Derby, International Protection of the Environment and Mechanisms for Settlement of Its Disputes, A Theoretical and Applied Study, with Special Reference to the Role of the International Tribunal for the Law of th e Sea, 1st Edition, (Cairo: National Center for Legal Publications, 2016), p. 94.
(4)Ali Adnan Al-Fail, International Legislation for Environmental Protection, 1st Edition, (Amman: Dar Al-Hamid for Publishing and Distribution, 2011), p. 58.
(5)Ahmed Fawzi Al-Rawi witnessed, a previously mentioned source, p. 178.
exacerbate threats and risks, and make the implementation of sustainable development goals impossible. The effects of climate change can also lead to the creation of a fertile ground for the activities of extremist groups and terrorists. It is estimated that 720 million people at risk of falling into poverty by 2050 as a result of climate change)1.
In 2021, the UN Security Council will discuss climate change and the threat it poses to world stability, especially after the Intergovernmental Group for the Study of Climate Change published a report stating that the continued rise in temperature may lead to more conflicts in the world. Which indicates that this environmental phenomenon poses a threat to global security, at the initiative of Britain, which chairs the council and is run by its foreign minister. "Margaret Beckett". The meeting officially bears the title "Energy, Security and Climate". The meeting did not reach decisions, but rather increased international awareness of the issue of climate change, which represents a global challenge, and that the cost of inaction is higher than the cost of doing something.2
Among the conclusions reached by the Security Council regarding the problem of climate change is commitment to the mechanisms of sustainable development and considers it a key to addressing the problem of climate change, given that climate protection is part of the goals that sustainable development seeks to achieve, and the Security Council promised preventive diplomacy as one of the methods that can be followed. The Security Council concluded that solving the problem of climate change begins with encouraging national efforts. Without measures that take place within borders, the effects of climate change cannot be reduced. This is a vision emanating from the Security Council, which considers national efforts as a starting point towards an international partnership to address the problem of climate change. and its security implications.3 As for the most important successes achieved by AUnited Nations in combating climate changethe following : 4
1. Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement was reached in 2015 under the auspices of the United Nations, and it is a global agreement that aims to limit the rise in global temperatures and limit the harmful effects of climate change. Most countries in the world have signed it, and member states are committed to achieving the goals of reducing carbon emissions and enhancing adaptation to the effects of climate change.
2. United Nations framework for combating climate change (UNFCCC): UNFCCC was established in 1992 with the goal of enhancing international cooperation to combat climate change. The framework serves as a platform for Member States to consult, exchange information and cooperate in implementing strategies to combat climate change.
3. world climate summit (COP: The United Nations annually organizes the Global Climate Summit (COP), which brings together representatives of governments, civil society and the private sector to discuss and negotiate ways to combat climate change. These summits aim to catalyze strong action to reduce carbon emissions, promote adaptation and provide financing for developing countries.
4. Climate Finance: The United Nations has encouraged significant funding to support efforts to combat climate change. Funds and financial mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund and the United Nations Adaptation Fund were established to help.
(1) Same source, pg. 182.
(2)The Security Council discusses climate change amid warnings of its danger, Al-Jazeera, 4/18/2007, available at the link.https://www-aljazeera-net.cdn.ampproject.or
Also seen: Harith Qahtan Abdullah and Muthanna Faeq Merhi. International competition for oil and natural gas and its impact on international relations. Tikrit Journal for Political Science 1 (2014). pp. 115-148
(3)Ahmed Fawzi Al-Rawi witnessed, a previously mentioned source, p. 183.
4 Tawfeeq, Saif Nussrat, and Salam Sayel Hammoud. "Rising Powers: A Study of Indicators and International Standing." Tikrit Journal For Political Science (2021): 333-366
CONCLUSION:
By reviewing the pivotal role of United Nations in addressing the challenges of global climate change and procedures By launching for agreement United Nations Framework for Combating Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the adoption of the Global Climate Agreement and the Paris Agreement, Lost The organization provided a structure and international frameworks for cooperation and motivation to reduce carbon emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
The United Nations promotes global efforts to mitigate climate change by strengthening cooperation between states, governments, civil society and the private sector. Which It encourages the adoption of policies and procedures to reduce emissions, encourage the use of renewable energy sources, and improve energy efficiency. It also provides technical support and financing for developing countries to adapt to the effects of climate change and implement sustainable projects.
We find that United Nations faced Challenges in achieving the required progress in combating climate change, as efforts to address this phenomenon depend on the cooperation of all countries and the adoption of urgent and radical measures. However, thanks to continuous and joint action between countries, institutions and societies, real progress can be made in combating climate change and achieving sustainable development.
To achieve an effective impact in combating climate change, the efforts of the United Nations must continue to strengthen global cooperation and motivate countries to adopt sustainable policies and strategies. Funding should also be enhanced to implement sustainable projects and improve available technology to reduce carbon emissions.
In conjunction with FAO's efforts, the entire international community, the private sector and citizens must be involved in the fight against climate change. Changing behavior and adopting a sustainable lifestyle are essential to achieving real and lasting impact in the fight against climate change. Despite the ongoing challenges, global cooperation and commitment of countries and communities can reduce the effects of climate change and preserve our planet for future generations. We must work together and take effective action to achieve a sustainable future and a healthy climate for all. In conclusion, he mentioned that climate change is a phenomenon witnessed by many countries, such as Iraq, which is the best and clear example of climate change. Desertification, drought, low water levels in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and the change in the rain cycle are all factors witnessed clearly during the two decades of the current century, and therefore climate change is a global problem. facing all countries of the world,1Therefore, coordination between organizations is required to develop solutions by following several measures, including reducing the rate of carbon dioxide emissions as a result of burning fossil fuels in the atmosphere, which requires reducing it by adopting clean energy to limit the occurrence of climate change. Conclusions:
1- Climate change is the change in temperature, amount of precipitation, winds, and relative humidity.
2- Climate change is caused by many causes, including natural, human and astronomical.
3- Climate change results in many effects that affect all living and non-living organisms.
4-That despite the contributions to these conferences, and the financing of programs to combat climate change and help poor developing countries that cannot face climate change, these agreements and conferences that have been held are pledges without commitments.
5-states aim Basically Achieving its interests, for example, China is an economic country and its economy depends on factories, and this leads total increased gas emissions, Therefore, there remains the need to conclude agreements that oblige countries to implement them in order to confront and limit the effects of climate change.
1 Mohammed Mundher %J Tikrit Journal For Political Science Jalal, "Water and 'Imperfect Peace' in the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin," 2, no. 24431 (2021).
REFERENCES:
[ 1] Kazem Abdel-Wahhab, The Effect of Climate Change on Relative Humidity Trends in Iraq, Journal of the College of Education, Issue 10, (Wasit: 2011),
[2] Saif Nusrat Tawfiq Al Hermozi %J Tikrit Journal for Political Science, "The New Actors of the International Order in the Twenty-First Century," no. 11 (2017).
[3] Harbiye Shirza Aziz, Youssef Muhammad Ali Hatim Al-Hathal, Climate Change Indicators for Climatic Elements in Diyala Governorate, Diyala Journal, Issue 88, (Diyala: 2021),
[4] Nisreen Al-Shahat Al-Sabahi, Climate Change and its Impact on Conflicts in East Africa, (Cairo: Al-Arabi for Publishing and Distribution, 2023),
[5] (Abdul-Zahra Shalash Al-Atabi, Shifa Hassan Kazem, Economic and political challenges resulting from climate change in the continent of Africa, Journal of the College of Basic Education, Volume 22, Number 93, (Al-Mustansiriya: 2016), p. 340.
[6] Hussein Jabri and Sami Mutlaq Al-Shammari, Climate Change and its Impact on the Temperature of Iraq, Journal of the College of Basic Education, Issue 12, (Babylon: 2013),
[7] Muhammad Rahim Muhammad Abd al-Dulaimi, "Indicators of climate change and their impact on the productivity of some agricultural crops in Anbar Governorate," an unpublished master's thesis, Anbar University, Anbar, 2020,
[8] Reda Abdul-Jabbar Al-Shammari, Hussein Ali Abdul-Hussein, Global climate change between the countries benefiting from it and affected by it, Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Human Sciences, Volume 11, Number 1, (Al-Qadisiyah: 2008),
[9] Orphan Nadia, Climate Change: Causes..Future Repercussions..Adaptive Mechanisms, Journal of Human Rights Studies, Volume 9, Number 1, (Algeria: 2022).
[ 10] Qasim Yousef Al-Shammari, Dalal Farhan, Climate Change and its Impact on the Health and Comfort of People, Journal of Human Sciences, Volume 1, Number 11, (Babylon: 2012),
[11] Abdel Samie Samaan Abdel Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Studies in University Education Journal, No. 56, (Cairo: 2022),
[ 12] Mohamed Obeidi, The Effects of Climate Change on Human Security and Human Rights, Journal of Rights and Human Sciences, Volume 9, Number 1, (Algeria: 2016),
[ 13] Karam Salam Abdel Raouf Salam, The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes, in a conference: The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes: The Democratic Center for Strategic and Economic Studies, Berlin, 2022,
[ 14] Muhammad Noman Nofal, Economics of Climate Change, Impacts and Policies, Series of Expert Meetings, Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, Issue 24, (Kuwait: 2007),
[ 15] Houria Ammari, "The Impact of Climate Change Threats on Environmental Security," an unpublished doctoral thesis, Ibn Khaldoun University, Tiarat, Algeria, 2020,
[16] Suhair Ibrahim Hajim Al-Hiti, International Responsibility for Environmental Damage, 1st Edition, (Syria: Dar and Raslan Foundation for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2008),
[ 17] Mona Tawaria, Climate Change and the Stakes of International Environmental Policy, Journal of North African Economics, Volume 16, Number 22, (Algeria: 2020),
[18] Hajar Arouj, International Mechanisms to Confront Environmental Threats, Researcher Journal for Academic Studies, Issue 13, (Algeria: 2018),
[19] C. Nasser Elias, The Role of the United Nations Organization in Preserving the Global Ecosystem", an unpublished masters thesis, University of Lakhdar Batna, Algeria, 2013,
[20] Tarek Rashi, A reading of the march of the United Nations Organization in addressing the problem of climate change during the period 1972-2018, Journal of the Research Unit in Human Resources Development, Volume 11, Number 3, (Algeria: 2020),
[21] Habib Maarouf, The Issue of Global Climate Change Between the Failures of Kyoto and Paris Expectations, 1st edition, (Lebanon: Dar Al-Farabi, 2016),
[22] Engy Ahmed Abdel-Ghany Mostafa, International Management of Climate Change Issue, Journal of the Faculty of Politics and Economics, Issue 3, (Cairo: 2009).
[23] Mohamed Majdan, Global Security, a study on its concept and ways to achieve it, Algerian Journal of Political Science and International Relations, No. 8, (Algeria: 2017),
[24] Dina Shaban, Allocating the Africa Pavilion at the Climate ConferenceCOP27 for the Development of the Continent, Al Shorouk, 5/11/2022, available at:
[25] https://www.shorouknews. com/mobile/news/view.aspx?cdate=05112022&id, date
[26] Amal Fawzi Ahmed Awad, Climate Justice and the Protection of Humanity (Principles, Rights, Challenges, International Efforts), 1st edition, (Berlin: Arab Democratic Center, 2023),
[27] Abd al-Masih Samaan Abd al-Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Journal of Studies in University Education, Issue 56, (Cairo: 2022),
[28] Hisham Mohamed Bashir, Climate Justice from the Perspective of International Law, Journal of the College of Politics and Economics, Volume 16, Number 15, (Cairo: 2022)
[29] Marwa Fikri, An Introduction to International Relations, The Crisis of Globalization and Global Prospects, 1st Edition, (Beirut: The Lebanese Book House, 2021).
[30] Wafia Qirdaniz, "International Protection of the Environment from Climate Change," an unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Algiers 1 Ben Youssef Ben Khadda, Algeria, 2022,
[31] Abdel-Al-Derby, International Protection of the Environment and Mechanisms for Settlement of Its Disputes, A Theoretical and Applied Study, with Special Reference to the Role of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 1st Edition, (Cairo: National Center for Legal Publications, 2016), p. 94.
[32] Ali Adnan Al-Fail, International Legislation for Environmental Protection, 1st Edition, (Amman: Dar Al-Hamid for Publishing and Distribution, 2011).
[33] Harith Qahtan Abdullah and Muthanna Faeq Merhi. International competition for oil and natural gas and its impact on international relations.Tikrit Journal for Political Science1 (2014).
[34] Kazem Abdel-Wahhab, L'effet du changement climatique sur les tendances de lhumidity relative in Irak, Journal of the College of Education, number 10, (Wasit: 2011),
[35] Qasim Yousef Al-Shammari, Dalal Farhan, Climate Change and its Impact on the Health and Comfort of People, Journal of Human Sciences, Volume 1, Numero 11, (Babylon: 2012),
[36] Abd al-Sami' Saman Abd al-Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Journal of Studies in University Education, No. 56, (Le Caire: 2022).
[37] Mohamed Obeidi, Les effets du changement climatique sur la securité humaine et les droits de l'homme, Revue des droits et des sciences humaines, Volume 9, Numéro 1, (Algerie: 2016),
[38] 13. Karam Salam Abdel Raouf Salam, The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes, in a conference: The Reality and Future of Global Climate Changes: The Democratic Center for Strategic and Economic Studies, Berlin, 2022,
[39] 14. Muhammad Noman Nofal, Economics of Climate Change, Effects and Policies, Series of Expert Meetings, Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, No. 24, (Koweit: 2007),
[40] 15. Houria Ammari, "The Impact of Climate Change Threats on Environmental Security, " this doctorate non publiée, Université Ibn Khaldun, Tiarat, Algérie, 2020,
[41] 16. Suhair Ibrahim Hajim Al-Hiti, International Responsibility for Environmental Damage, 1ère edition, (Syrie: Dar and Raslan Foundation for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2008),
[42] 17. Mona Tawaria, Climate Change and the Stakes of International Environmental Policy, Journal of North African Economics, Volume 16, Numero 22, (Algerie: 2020),
[43] 18. Hajar Arouj, International Mechanisms to Confront Environmental Threats, Researcher Journal for Academic Studies, Numéro 13, (Algerie: 2018),
[44] 19. C. Nasser Elias, «The Role of the United Nations Organization in Preserving the Global Ecosystem», memoire of maîtrise non publié, Université de Lakhdar Batna, Algeria, 2013,
[45] 2. Saif Nusrat Tawfiq al-Hurmozi %J Tikrit Journal for Political Science, « Nouveaux acteurs de l'ordre international au XXIe siècle », no. 11 (2017).
[46] 20. Tariq Rashi, A Reading of the United Nations Organizations March in Addressing the Problem of Climate Change during the Period 1972-2018, Journal of the Research Unit in Human Resources Development, Volume 11, Number 3, (Algerie : 2020),
[47] 21. Habib Maarouf, La question du changement climatique mondial entre les échecs de Kyoto et les attendants de Paris, 1ère édition, (Liban: Dar Al-Farabi, 2016),
[48] 22. Engy Ahmed Abdel-Ghany Mostafa, International Management of Climate Change Issue, Journal of the College of Politics and Economics, No. 3, (Le Caire: 2009).
[49] 23. Mohamed Majdan, Global Security, an essay on his concept and the moyens d'y parvenir, Algeria's Science Politique and International Relations Revue, n° 8, (Algeria: 2017).
[50] 24. Dina Shaaban, Location of the African Pavillon at the COP27 Conference on the climate for the development of the continent, Al-Shorouk, 5/11/2022, available on:
[51] 25. Amal Fawzi Ahmed Awad, Climate Justice and the Protection of Humanity (Principles, Rights, Challenges, International Efforts), first edition, (Berlin: Arab Democratic Center, 2023),
[52] 26. Abd al-Masih Samaan Abd al-Masih, The Role of Universities in Confronting the Problem of Climate Change, Journal of Studies in University Education, n° 56, (Le Caire : 2022),
[53] 27. Hisham Mohamed Bashir, Climate Justice from the Perspective of International Law, Journal of the College of Politics and Economics, Volume 16, Number 15, (Le Caire : 2022)
[54] 28. Marwa Fikri, Une introduction aux international relations, La crise de la mondialisation et les perspectives mondiales, 1ère édition, (Beyrouth: La Maison libanaise du livre, 2021).
[55] 29. Wafia Qerdaniz, "International Protection of the Environment from Climate Change, " this doctorate non-public, Université d'Alger 1 Ben Youssef Ben Khadda, Algeria, 2022.
[56] 3. Harbiye Shirza Aziz, Youssef Muhammad Ali Hatim Al-Hathal, Indicateurs of changement climatiques for the éléments climatiques in the goovernorat of Diyala, Diyala Journal, number 88, (Diyala: 2021),
[57] 30. Abdel-Al-Derby, International Environmental Protection and Dispute Settlement Mechanisms, A Theoretical and Applied Study, with Special Reference to the Role of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 1ère edition, (Le Caire : National Center for Legal Publications, 2016), p. 94.
[58] 31. Ali Adnan Al-Fail, Législation internationale for environmental protection, 1st edition (Amman: Dar Al-Hamid for edition and distribution, 2011).
[59] 32. Harith Qahtan Abdullah et Muthanna Faeq Merhi. Concurrence internationale pour le petrol et le gas naturel et son impact sur les relations internationales. Tikrit Journal of Science Politics 1 (2014),
[60] Nisreen Al-Shahat Al-Sabahi, Climate Change and its Impact on Conflicts in East Africa, (Le Caire : Al-Arabi for Publishing and Distribution, 2023),
[61] (Abdul-Zahra Shalash Al-Atabi, Shifa Hassan Kazem, Les Defis économiques et politiques résultant du changement climate on the African continent, Journal of College d'education of base, Volume 22, Numéro 93, (Al-Mustansiriya: 2016 ), page 340.
[62] Hussein Jabri et Sami Mutlaq Al-Shammari, Climate Change and its Impact on the Temperature of Iraq, Journal of the College of Basic Education, Numero 12, (Babylon: 2013),
[63] Muhammad Rahim Muhammad Abd al-Dulaimi, "Indicateurs of climate change and its impact on the products of certain cultures agricoles in the governorat of Anbar, " this non-public school, University of Anbar, Anbar, 2020.
[64] Reda Abdul-Jabbar Al-Shammari, Hussein Ali Abdul-Hussein, Change climatique mondial between les pays bénéficiaires et touchés, Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Human Sciences, Volume 11, Numero 1, (Al-Qadisiyah : 2008),
[65] Orphan Nadia, Climate Change: Causes..Future Repercussions..Adaptive Mechanisms, Journal of Human Rights Studies, Volume 9, Numero 1, (Algerie: 2022).
[66] Hassan, Alaa Mohammed, and Saif Nusrat Tawfiq. The effects of lack of food security." Nasaq 37.5 (2023).
[67] https://www.shorouknews. com/mobile/news/view.aspx?cdate=05112022&id, date
[68] Mohammed Mundher %J Tikrit Journal For Political Science Jalal, "Water and Imperfect Peace' in the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin," 2, no. 24 (2021).
[69] Saif Nussrat Tawfeeq, Karrar Noori Hammed, and Jumana Khaldon %J Tikrit Journal For Political Science Saadoun, "The Role of Us Financial Institutions in the International Economic Sanctions Mechanism, " no. 26 (2022).
[70] Tawfeeq, Saif Nussrat, and Salam Sayel Hammoud. "Rising Powers: A Study of Indicators and International Standing. " Tikrit Journal For Political Science (2021):.
