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THE ROLE OF CHAUVINISTIC PREJUDICES IN M. O. MANDELSHTAM'S SCIENTIFIC AN D PEDAGOGICAL
CAREER
Kulish S.M.
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor at the Department of Ukrainian studies V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University
ABSTRACT
The article reviews the life, scientific and pedagogical career of M. O. Mandelshtam, privat docent of St. Volodymyr University. The article looks into the reasons that made him give up his career as teacher at the university. The paper investigates his further work as private doctor, public figure, follower of the Zionism doctrine and practices. The data is crucial for understanding the attitude of Tsarism towards national minorities, Jews in particular.
Keywords: privat docent, St. Volodymyr University, Academic Council, eye clinic, Jewish issue.
A privat docent-to-be of St. Volodymyr University, the famous practicing ophthalmologist Maksymilian (Emmanuiil) Omelianovych (Hats-kelevych) Mandelshtam was born on May 14, 1838 in the town of Zhagory, Shavel district in Kovno gubernia. The Mandelshtams lived in the Jewish settlement area. The father of Maks (that was what he was usually called in everyday life) was an average-income merchant and an educated person. He wrote the scientific and religious works "Interpretations and Comments on the Old Testament Texts" and "the Book of Names". He had a good command of the German and French languages (he taught them to his son), and at the age of 50 he learnt English. When Maks was 5, his mother read Schiller's ballads to him. Another Mandelshtam, Leon Yosypovych (Maks' uncle) was the first Russian Jew who in 1844 graduated from the Saint-Petersburg University Faculty of History and Philology. He held the position of "Scholarly Jew" at the Ministry of Public Education of the Russian Empire. He was the author of the first Jewish-Russian and Russian-Jewish dictionary.
Maks' other uncle - Veniamin (Benjamin) Mandel-shtam was a writer, author of the book about the specific situation of Jewish communities in Western Europe and the Russian Empire. Maks' brother Yosyp Mandelshtam was an historian of Russian literature, professor of the Department of Russian Language and Literature at Helsingfors University. His sister, Fanni Mandelshtam (Faneshtyl) was a professor at the Kharkiv Conservatory. The Mandelshtams contributed to culture and science with a biologist, a composer, a petrochemist, a pianist, a physicist, a biochemist, a poetess and other talented specialists.
Up to the age of 10 Maks studied at heder - a Jewish religious primary school for boys. Then he went to primary school in Mitau, and at 16 he finished gymnasium in Vilen. After that he entered the Medical Faculty of Dorpat University but the situation in his family made him transfer to Kharkiv University. He left it with the title of doctor, following which he started practicing medicine in Chernihiv. He recalled a little later: "It cost me great odds to forget what I had learnt in Kharkiv".
The same idea was suggested by another famous ophthalmologist and a long-time friend of Mandelshtam's L. L. Hirshman [1, p. 24 - 26; 2, p. 14 - 15].
In Dorpat M. O. Mandelshtam came to realize the vulnerability of his nationality and religion. It was here that he first understood the implication of the scornful word "Yids" ("Jews") from an Aryan student. Maks challenged him to a duel, but the latter did not want to fight and apologized [3, p. 25 - 26].
Choosing ophthalmology as his career, M. O. Mandelshtam went abroad in 1864 where he was taught by famous professors. He owed a lot to A. von Graefe, a former privat docent of Berlin University, founder of the Heidelberg Ophthalmic Society. Among Mandelshtam's teachers were R. Virchow, professor of pathologic anatomy, J. Knapp, professor of Heidelberg University, head of an ophthalmology clinic. It was this scholar who cultivated in Mandelshtam his passion to study the timely issues of physiological optics. In 1868 J. Knapp moved to New York where he started an institute for problems in ophthalmology. He repeatedly asked M. O. Mandelshtam to move to the USA, offering him a well-paid job.
It was not at once that M. O. Mandelshtam made up his mind, but eventually he decided not to leave Motherland. He worked with R. Virchow, for one and a half years he worked as assistant to professor A. Pagenstecher at the Wiesbaden Eye Clinic, and he was a favorite of H. von Helmholtz. It was at Helm-holtz's laboratory that Mandelshtam in 1865 wrote the article "On Ophthalmology" (in German) which later transformed into the basis for his doctoral thesis. He defended it at the Saint-Petersburg Academy of Medicine and Surgery in 1868 and entitled it "Application of Ophthalmology in Specific Issues of Physiological Optics" [4, p. 59 - 60; 5, p. 69 - 71].
On October 24, 1868 M. O. Mandelshtam was appointed privat docent at St. Volodymyr University to deliver lectures and practical classes on ophthalmology. In September, 1869 he became a supernumerary attending physician at the Kyiv Military Hospital [6; 7, paragraphs 1 - 5]. Previously, this subject had been taught by professor Ch. Hubbenet who at the age of 28 headed the Department of Theoretical Surgery with an ophthialiatry and hospital clinic. He was the first to use ophthalmoscopy in Kyiv and in 1858 published the course of lectures called "Ophthialiatry, or Theory of Eye Diseases". Yet, in 1871 Ch. Hubbenet retired from his position. Besides, professor V. O. Karavayev who had started a separate department of ophthalmology at the University, after 25 years of service became a recognized specialist in eye diseases. In particular, long before A. von Graefe it was he who had made upper cornea dissection in cases of cataract common practice in eye surgery. His was the first to operate under anesthesia in Kyiv on February 18, 1847. M. O. Mandelshtam also worked with extraordinary professor O.V. Ivanov whose works on eye histology were almost all published in German. Of course, M. O. Mandel-shtam knew German well and could speak it as fluently as he spoke Russian. One of the University lecturers recalled that he looked more like a German professor than a Russian Jew.
Whereas O. V. Ivanov was mainly engaged in eye anatomy, M. O. Mandelshtam studied physiological optics, eye sensitivity to spectral colors. Yet, this only helped them in their work, especially at the Kyiv Military Hospital Eye Department. Moreover, on account of poor health O. V. Ivanov could do practical surgery, which was not the case with M. O. Mandelshtam.
M. O. Mandelshtam gave lectures (4 hours) on ophthalmoscopy, diseases of ocular refraction and accommodation to fourth-year students, although the lectures were optional. Yet, according to his former student Ya. Hendelman, the lectures were not only easy for understanding and rich in context, but also poetically captivating. In September, 1870 the Academic Council granted M. O. Mandelshtam permission to teach classes with demonstratory experiments in his own apartment, although the permission was only received in February, 1871. On account of this, his workday started at 7 a.m. when he began to get ready for lectures. After that he performed eye operations in the eye clinic, and at 2 p.m. he resumed his classes with students. In the late 70-s his name was very well-known in the academic and pedagogical community. Thus, when professor C. Yung of Saint-Petersburg University was recommended to take a St. Volodymyr University graduate as his assistant he asked who had taught him eye diseases. Hearing the name Mandelshtam the professor immediately agreed to accept the candidate to his clinic [8, p. 20; 9, p. 11 - 12; 10].
In 1873, finding it crucial to improve his professional skills, M. O. Mandelshtam went to Vienna where he was trained by professor Th. Meynert (a tutor of Z. Freud's), psychologist, neurophysiologist and anatomist. After that Mandelshtam worked at the Vienna University Physiology Institute headed by professor E. von Brücke.
M. O. Mandelshtam's career could certainly have been more or less successful if he had renounced his Jewish religion and gone to the Orthodox Church and changed his patronymic "Hackelevych" for a pro-Russian one. Since he was unwilling to follow these recommendations, the Academic Council did not approve his appointment as privat docent through open ballot at all, and at the closed session the ball voting had to be conducted twice, even though the attitude of the Public Education Ministry Heads was more tolerant. It should be noted that in May, 1866 the University Academic Council had sent a request to the Minister inquiring whether Jews could receive the title of privat docent and then be employed for full-time work, taking into account the Ministry's February 27, 1863 circular. It said that vacant positions at the University chairs should be occupied primarily by Russians, especially the Orthodox. The answer from the Minister of Public Education came on July 7, 1866. It said: it was not desirable that Jews should be employed as teachers of political, legal and historical sciences since these subjects were based on Christian religion [11, paragraphs 3 - 4]. Thus, this ban did not mention medical sciences.
Since, from 1876 to the spring of 1880, professor O. V. Ivanov was away on treatment abroad, on September 17, 1876 M. O. Mandelshtam became head of the University Ophthalmology Clinic. Each year the
Faculty of Medicine asked the Academic Council to pay him a reward of 300 - 600 rubles every six months (the annual salary of an ordinary professor was 3,000 rubles). It should be noted that when this issue was discussed by the Academic Council, quite a few professors were unwilling to support such decisions if it came to payments to privat docents who were Jewish or non-Russian. For example, on December 16, 1880 twelve members of the Council did not find it necessary to pay money to M. O. Mandelshtam for his lectures on oph-thalmoscopy with practical training and on eye muscles diseases. 16 professors did not approve the Faculty's proposal to pay 300 rubles to O. A. Schwartz for his lectures on postnatal diseases. The same number of the Council members also voted against paying O. E. Mifle for his optional lectures on birth diseases and wound healing [12, p. 7]. In addition, the Academic Council deliberately ignored the fact that 491 operations had been made when M. O. Mandelshtam headed the eye clinic. This was much more than the number of operations made under O. V. Ivanov and later, after 1880, when the clinic was headed by privat docent O. A. Rustytsky [13, p. 174]. It was but natural that professor and lawyer O. F. Kistiakivsky asked M. O. Man-delshtam to treat his son Bogdan for his eye diseases in the autumn of 1880 [14, p. 271].
Three times the Faculty of Medicine resolved that M. O. Mandelshtam should be granted the position of docent or extraordinary professor, but the Academic Council refused to vote for it. Thus, on September 18, 1879 12 faculty members approved his promotion to the position of docent-on-the-staff proposed by professor V. B. Tomsa (with only one professor objecting). He reminded that for 11 years M. O. Mandelshtam had taught special courses on ophthalmology to senior students and successfully headed the eye clinic. His first scientific article in 1865 was noticed by scholars, the conclusions made in it were referred to in foreign manuals on ophthalmology. The second article in 1866 studied cases of 10 thousand patients with eye diseases as well as some specific features of their treatment. As of September 1879, M. O. Mandelshtam had published five articles, mainly in foreign journals. However, professors M. F. Khandrikov and P. P. Alekseev rejected V. B. Tomsa's opinion. The former said: back on March 27, 1865 the Faculty of Medicine had concluded that docentship-on-the-staff in ophthalmology was unnecessary. If this resolution was not fulfilled, then lectures on ophthalmology would be given by both professor O. V. Ivanov and docent M. O. Mandelshtam, although the course was not so big. In addition, the faculty did not know O. V. Ivanov's point of view as to M. O. Mandelshtam's pedagogical skills. According to M. F. Khandrikov, V. B. Tomsa himself judged M. O. Mandelshtam's skills only as a clinician's. He also described V. O. Karavaev's positive references mentioned by V. B. Tomsa as groundless. These statements were dispelled by professor O. O. Scheffer, founder of the University Department of Medical Chemistry and Physics. He pointed out that practical classes on ophthalmology required too much time and very small student groups which M. O. Mandelshtam had frequently done before. Secondly, classes were taught in two eye
departments: one at the University and the other at the Kyiv Military Hospital. Thirdly, it was V. O. Karavaev, who had headed the University Eye Clinic for about 25 years, who knew M. O. Mandelshtam's work much better than O. V. Ivanov did. The latter did not know any specific features of M. O. Mandelshtam's clinical work. Eventually, situations when an absent professor's point of view as to employment issues was ignored had never occurred at the University. And it was O. V. Ivanov who was absent. However, 20 white balls were cast in favor of granting M. O. Mandelshtam the position of docent and 21 were against [15, p. 15 - 18; 16, p. 28 -33].
Feeling offended by this situation, on November 4, 1879 M. O. Mandelshtam submitted a report to the dean of the Faculty of Medicine where he stated: "The 11 years of my efficient work, including 3.5 years as head of the Eye Clinic were acknowledged by the Academic Council. But I was wrong about its subjectivity, therefore I ask you to dismiss me as head of the Eye Clinic". Later he agreed to only teach training courses on ophthalmology. This was a very unfortunate situation for the Faculty: O.V. Ivanov was to have returned before early May, 1880 (he died from lung tuberculosis in April, 1880 in Menton). As for V. O. Karavaev, he could not teach ophthalmology since he headed the University Surgery Clinic and taught operation surgery. This meant that the students could not fully cope with the ophthalmology course without M. O. Mandelshtam [17, p. 29 - 30].
Hearing about the setbacks in teaching ophthalmology, the Ministry of Public Education ordered M. O. Mandelshtam to teach the course of eye diseases and ophthalmology until June 1, 1880 [18, paragraph 13]. Moreover, on September 22, 1879 M. K. Rennenkampf, the University rector, despite his anti-Semitism, reported to the Minister of Public Education about M. O. Mandelshtam's successful work. He even added that M. O. Mandelshtam was paid 200 rubles per hour every week [19, paragraph 1 - 2].
On December 5, 1879 the Faculty of Medicine came up with an appeal to the Academic Council to ask M. O. Mandelshtam to continue teaching and heading the Eye Clinic. However, they received a nonchalant answer: to address him on behalf of the Faculty [20, p. 40]. Naturally, M. O. Mandelshtam agreed to continue performing his duties and in March, 1880 he asked to be granted the position of extraordinary professor. Unwilling to burden the University financially, he agreed to be paid as docent only [21, p. 111].
The Academic Council refused to fulfill even this humble request. In its "Letter to 24 Professors" M. O. Mandelshtam wrote with bitterness: "Doctors elected me, I was not favoured by lawyers, philologists and mathematicians, because I am a Jew ... That was the insignificant gloominess of a closed ballot, law of the fist, arbitrariness, violence, those were not scientific considerations, but science mocked, an attempt to rape Jewish conscience" [22, p. 27].
Although in 1881 the Eye Clinic hired privat docent O. A. Rustytsky and from July 3, 1881 extraordinary professor A. V. Khodin, yet for some reason teaching hours for M. O. Mandelshtam were also planned for
the 1881-1882 academic year. It was an optional course on ophthalmology with practical classes on eye muscle diseases for 3 hours. Moreover, as of January 1, 1884 he remained a university lecturer dejure [23, p. 131].
Since the beginning of 1881 M. O. Mandelshtam started to be actively engaged in social activities, although until the late 80's he still hoped to return to the University. Having for some time become an advocate of Zionism, he founded a society aiming to help the victims of Jewish pogroms in Kiev. Together with the leader of the Hovevei Zion movement L. S. Pinsker (the author of the pamphlet "Autoemancipation" where he came up with the idea that the Jews should obtain their own territory) and the writer M. L. Lilianblum, in early September, 1882 he created the Russian Empire's first Palestinephilic group in Odessa. After M. L. Lilianblum died on December 9, 1891 M. O. Mandelshtam became one of the closest assistants to the Zionist leader Th. Herzl. He participated in the first six congresses of Zionist representatives and published articles describing the oppressed situation of Jews in tsarist Russia in newspapers in Western Europe.
On March 29, 1886 V. V. Velyaminov-Zernov, trustee of the Kyiv educational district, reminded to the St. Volodymyr University rector that employment of Jews as privat docent's was undesirable. When the same year M. O. Mandelshtam requested that his employment as lecturer should be resumed, he certainly received a negative answer from M. K. Rennenkampf. He would have done the same without having to be reminded by the trustee, since in 1881 he published a series anti-Semitic articles in local newspapers. On February 15, 1889 Minister of Public Education I. D. Deli-anov prohibited M. O. Mandelshtam to hold any positions as lecturer [24, paragraph 12 - 14].
After the refusal, M. O. Mandelshtam concentrated on his work at the private eye clinic he had started himself. And Kyiv certainly needed one. In the early 80's, not a single bed was available for patients with eye diseases in state hospitals for the 130 000 Kievans. Although one private eye clinic did exist, it was only meant for the wealthy citizens, the clinic at St. Volodymyr University was open during the whole summer (it had 10 beds). For comparison: at the University of Dorpat, the eye clinic had 40 beds, in Mitau (Jelgava), where M. O. Mandelshtam had finished primary school, there was an eye clinic with 30 beds for 24 thousand citizens [25, p. 107 - 108].
At this hospital, M. O. Mandelshtam received 100 to 150 patients daily and most of them were treated for free. From 1888 to 1894 he prepared five publications of "Clinical Lectures on Ophthalmology" totaling 886 pages. During the 4th Pirogov Congress in Kyiv in 1896, ophthalmologists visited his clinic to acquaint themselves with the surgical technologies, including the removal of cataracts. In 1904 he became the first head of the Kyiv Ophthalmologic Society. He did not give up his public activity either: thus, on July 6, 1906 in the hall "Union" in Odessa he gave a public lecture on "The Jewish Issue in Broad Context and Territorial-ism". At that time he was a devout advocate of creating a Jewish autonomy on the territory of Palestine.
So, the Mandelshtams gave the Russian Empire prominent scientists, men of arts and literature. At the same time, M. O. Mandelshtam himself, who was the first to use the method of ophthalmoscopy, wrote a number of scientific papers on ophthalmology, headed an eye clinic, taught students, did not renounce the Jewish religion which resulted in his oppression by tsarist officials. This is an example of how the Tsar's government treated national minorities, including Jews.
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АНАЛ1З ФАКТОР1В, ЩО ВПЛИВАЮТЬ НА УМОВИ НАВЧАННЯ Ф1ЗИКИ У ЗАКЛАДАХ ВИЩО1 ТЕХН1ЧНО1 ОСВ1ТИ УКРА1НИ
Лтвтова М.Б.
кандидат фгз.-мат. наук, доцент Херсонсько'1 фшИ Нацюнального утверситету кораблебудування
iM. адм. Макарова, м Херсон, Украша
ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING CONDITIONS OF LEARNING OF PHYSICS IN UKRAINE'S HIGHER ENGINEERING SCHOOL
Litvinova M.
PhD. Sci. Science Assoc., Associate Professor of National University of Shipbuilding adm. Makarov",
Kherson branch, Kherson, Ukraine
АНОТАЦ1Я
Розглянуп та проаналiзованi найбшьш впливовГ фактори, що ускладнюють умови навчання фiзики у закладах вищо! технично! освгти (ЗВТО) Украши. До них ввднесеш: по-перше, суттеве зниження якосп знань випускнишв середшх шкш з проф№них iнженерних предметiв - фiзики та математики; по-друге, юнують структурнi змiни в органiзацii навчального процесу у ЗВТО. Вказуеться, що для подолання насладив впливу цих факторiв необхiдна розробка та використання спецiальних адаптивних методик нав-чання.
ABSTRACT
Considered and analyzed the most influential factors that complicate the conditions of learning of physics in Higher Engineering School (HIS) of Ukraine. These factors include the following: firstly, there is a significant decrease in the quality of secondary school graduates knowledge in specialized engineering subjects - physics and mathematics; and secondly, there are structural changes in the organization of the educational process in HIS. It is indicated that in order to overcome the consequences of these factors, it is necessary to develop and use special adaptive teaching methods.
Ключовi слова: фiзика, умови навчання, освгтш проблеми, заклади вищоi' iнженерноi освгти Украши.
Keywords: physics, conditions of learning, educational problems, Higher Engineering School of Ukraine.
загальноiнженерну та спещальну шдготовку. Гли-
Специфжа навчального процесу в техшчному боке вивчення основ фiзики - найбшьш обгрунто-ушверситеп полягае в практичнш спрямованосп ваний зааб оволодшня знаннями та навичками, дисциплш, при цьому фiзика е фундаментальною необхвдними iнженеру, за умов експоненщально! основою дисциплiн техшчного спрямування. Вона динамiки науково та техшчно-шформацшного роз- наукова база, на якш вища технiчна освгга будуе
