CC BY
16
УДК 316.6:304.2
м. bAlan,
Doctor of Mathematical Sciences and Economics, Univ. Professor, SRI Institute for Economic Forecasting-NIER, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, e-mail: dr.mariana.balan@gmail.com
S. м. stAnescu,
Doctor of Sociology, SR I Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, e-mail: simona_vonica@yahoo.com
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF DRUG CONSUMPTION AMONG YOUTHS
In the 21st century, drug consumption and traffic exceed the stage of simple phenomena, and unfold as one of the most severe and worrying issues faced by the human civilization. The social changes taking place in the Romanian society have generated social insecurity, suspicion, and frustration, a feeling of discouragement even of inadequacy especially among youths. From a behavioural perspective, these perceptions and attitudes are materialised in deviant behaviour. In the multitude of shapes taken by social deviance, a particular place is taken by drug consumption. The negative effects of drugs on the state of the individual, and on the social relationships are incontestable. Drug users are found most often in conditions of personal and social vulnerability triggered by this type of consumption.
From the methodological viewpoint, the descriptive statistical analysis was used (graphs, tables, average calculations) especially for visualising and synthesising the information detached from data sets from publications of the National Anti-Drug Agency, from European Reports regarding drugs; World Drug Reports published by the Office of the United Nations (UNODC). The classification analysis was used in defining a typology of drug consumption at European, national and regional level.
As results, the paper includes a brief comparative analysis of the psychosocial effects generated by the drug consumption phenomenon among youths from Romania, and from the European Union.
The conclusion of the study is that drug consumption among youths might lead to their excessive marginalisation that can be displayed under the form of increased intolerance of the population against them, and by limiting their access to the usual resources and opportunities for youths of the same age.
Keywords: drugs, youths' vulnerability, psychosocial impact, social exclusion.
М. БАЛАН,
доктор математических наук и экономики, профессор, Институт экономического прогнозирования, Академия наук Румынии, Бухарест
С. М. СТАНЕСКУ,
доктор социологических наук, Институт исследования качества жизни, Академия наук Румынии, Бухарест
ПСИХОСОЦИАЛЬНОЕ И ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЕ ВЛИЯНИЕ ПОТРЕБЛЕНИЯ НАРКОТИКОВ СРЕДИ МОЛОДЕЖИ
В XXI в. потребление и оборот наркотиков выходят за рамки простых явлений и раскрываются как одна из наиболее серьезных и тревожных проблем, с которыми сталкивается человеческая цивилизация. Социальные изменения, происходящие в румынском обществе, породили социальную нестабильность, подозрительность и разочарование, чувство обескура-
живания, даже неадекватности, особенно среди молодежи. С поведенческой точки зрения эти восприятия и установки материализуются в девиантном поведении. Во множестве форм, относящихся к социальным отклонениям, особое место занимает потребление наркотиков. Негативное влияние наркотиков на состояние личности и социальные отношения неоспоримо. Потребители наркотиков чаще всего встречаются в условиях личной и социальной уязвимости, вызванной этим типом потребления.
С методологической точки зрения описательный статистический анализ (графики, таблицы, средние расчеты) использовался специально для визуализации и синтеза информации, выделенной из наборов данных из публикаций Национального агентства по борьбе с наркотиками, из Европейских отчетов о наркотиках, Докладов о наркотиках в мире, опубликованных Управлением Организации Объединенных Наций (ООН). Классификационный анализ использовался для выявления типологии потребления наркотиков на европейском, национальном и региональном уровнях.
В результате в работе осуществлен краткий сравнительный анализ психосоциальных эффектов, вызванных феноменом употребления наркотиков среди молодежи из Румынии и Европейского союза.
Вывод исследования заключается в том, что употребление наркотиков среди молодежи может привести к их чрезмерной маргинализации, что может проявиться в форме повышенной нетерпимости населения к ним и ограничения их доступа к обычным ресурсам и возможностям для молодежи того же возраста.
Ключевые слова: наркотики, уязвимость молодежи, психосоциальное воздействие, социальное исключение.
JEL Classification: C42, I12, I32, J13, J64, L65
A pertinent analysis of the drug phenomenon in the world for the last years allows for findings about the complex, dynamic character of this phenomenon, and its expansion in the entire world. From the analysis of the general international context and being aware about the internal reasons for its evolution and expansion, it results that the global approach is the only way of approaching efficiently this phenomenon. This presupposes the implementation of an integrated monitoring, control and repression system realised by close cooperation between all states of the world.
The paper explores the psychosocial and economic impact of drug consumption among youths. The first part is dedicated to the psychosocial and economic effects of drug consumption in Romania from an international comparative perspective. The second part of the paper is centred on realising some correlations between drug consumption factors and the economic determinants like labour force employment, productivity, income, and price.
The psychosocial and economic effects of drug consumption in Romania in international context
This situation is translated into a heavy burden on the public health system, in terms of prevention, treatment, and care in the issues related to drug consumption, respectively with respect to the medical consequences of drug use. Out of six problem-consumers, only one has access to medical care. The number of annual deaths caused by drugs is estimated at 190,9 thousand persons for 2015. An exagge-
rated high number of consumers lose their lives because of overdose, in spite of the fact that deaths caused by drugs can be prevented [1].
Next to the effects proper of drug consumption corresponding to the various types of illicit substances, just as damaging is the risk behaviour these persons are engaged in for procuring and using drugs. Most times, drug consumption takes place in uncertain instances, which leads to the outspread of infectious diseases (especially HIV, but also hepatitis, and tuberculosis). To these is added the limited access to preventative and treatment means, thereby increasing the risk of spreading these diseases.
Overdose is the main reason for the deaths, opioids (heroin and the use of opi-oids prescribed for other purposes than the medical ones) being the main substances accounting for these deaths. Overdose accounts for 3.5 % of the deaths at European level among the population aged between 15 and 39 years. The countries most affected in Europe by this phenomenon are the northern ones: Estonia, Scotland, Finland, Sweden, Northern Ireland, the Russian Federation, Norway, and the Republic of Ireland where over 200 deaths are recorded per one million inhabitants, for the population with ages between 15 and 64 years.
In North America are registered about 29 % out of the total number of deaths caused by drug use at world level, which makes this are to record by far the highest mortality rate. USA reports a number of deaths that is 4.35 times higher than the global average recorded in 2015: 55300 deaths [1, p. 12].
In order to understand better the dynamics of the processes generated by drug consumption, we must mention briefly drug addicts as these consumers are called, for attempting to determine the reasons pushing them to adopting such behaviour. The question why an individual turns into an addict depending on one or more substances generating addiction was answered in various ways, by enumerating causes of psychological, economic, and social nature. The answer to this question is complex, requiring an approach from several perspectives. Some researchers state that all these reasons are nothing else but favourable circumstances of the drug addiction agent, respectively of the drug. Others regard as answerable the personality of the drug addict. Claude Olievenstein states that the drug addict is the "symptom of a profound malady of the society, expressed dramatically by some youths, as it is, in fact, the meeting between a certain product, a certain individual, and society" [2].
The psychological motivation is still the most credible explanation, the highest incidence for beginning with drug use being recorded among the teenage and young population faced with the most disagreeable aspects of life: unemployment, lack of housing, violence, social or racial discrimination. Out of a bravado or refuge wish, they fall in the trap of a vice that they cannot escape subsequently from, and which becomes their only reason for living. Knowing about this situation, we understand once more the necessity of fighting against this phenomenon that leads to individual and social ruin, as we are aware about the difficulty of fighting a monster that proves unforeseen capacities in fighting back.
All developed countries benefit of criminal legislation sanctioning smuggling, production, distribution, or possession of a wide range of psychotropic substances. In case of severe illegalities, the punishment reflects the aversion of society faced with the types of crime considered as extremely dangerous. The imprisonment sanctions for trafficking and distributing drugs equates in some jurisdictions with the sentences for premeditated homicide. However, there are voices contesting the efficiency of these laws, by underpinning their costly character in relation to the generated effects. These voices support the elimination of legal prohibition, fact leading to a debate in which each of the parties brings own arguments for supporting their position.
Total legalisation is the one giving rise to most discussions. While its supporters maintain that the formula applied already in the case of recreational drugs might be extended successfully also to the others, the anti-legalisation party supports the idea that the legal control formula is completely inefficient in preventing the prejudices caused to the population. The disadvantages of the legal way of approaching drugs are best highlighted by the prejudices caused to public health and the significant social costs [3].
Despite inherent limitations occurred while attempting to show the magnitude of the drugs' issue, a brief review of the costs and "benefits" derived from this industry is more than necessary. In spite of the scattered character of the information that might be collected at regional, national, or world level, it is essential to use them for drafting efficient policies with the purpose of combating and preventing drug consumption.
While economic integration as consequence of globalisation represented the rule for several past decades, the speed and geographic expansion of economic operations are a relatively new phenomenon and still in full development. The emergence and development of organised crime networks at world level were supported by an otherwise positive force: the technological progress and these organisations knew to profit fully from appearing opportunities. Illicit substances trafficking is today a major issue in countries that a few years back knew nothing about the existence of this issue, and the authorities have the difficult task of facing a well-functioning machinery which has as sole purpose to obtain power and profits by any means.
Regarding the effects of the operation of these networks, these are multiple and among the most severe. By their organisation and activity, drug cartels represent a real threat to the security and development of the countries where their presence is felt. The states are forced to allot increasingly more resources to the fight against them but also for combating the 'goods' they throw on the market. These organisations have created a true parallel economy constituted from numerous elements pertaining to the organised crime sphere. What makes their annihilation more difficult is that they succeed in increasing constantly their power and multiply their gains up to astronomical shares.
While the operations of these entities increase and are diversified, this process takes place in direct proportionality to the deepening social issue represented by
the recipients of these circuits, respectively the consumers. Their numbers continue to grow despite awareness campaigns about the negative effects of illicit drug consumption. As long as there is demand, also supply will continue to exist. Unfortunately, in this instance, the demand keeps operational a true death industry, responsible for shocking individual and collective dramas considering their size and horror, as drug consumption and its effects are one of the worst afflictions humanity has to bear.
The most outspread communicable diseases associated with drug consumption from the medical point of view are HIV, HVP (hepatitis virus B) and HVC (hepatitis virus C). Bellow are presented some developments of communicable diseases associated to drug consumption in Romania (Fig. 1).
The monitoring of deaths occurred among drug consumers provides for a concrete image about the impact of drug consumption and its consequences (Fig. 2). For the year 2016, as well, difficulties were recorded in collecting data from the entire medical-forensic network regarding deaths because of drug consumption. In this context, at national level (in the absence of data from 11 medical-forensic county institutions), 19 cases of deaths associated directly to drug consumption, and 12 causes of deaths related indirectly to drug consumption were reported for the year 2016.
In the 3060 medical emergency cases recorded at national level was signalled the consumption of at least one illicit drug (used alone or in a combination) in the year 2016. Also in 2016, regarding the distribution on genders of medical emergencies because of illicit drug consumption, an unequal distribution was registered between men and women with a higher weight in the case of men - 77.6 %, compared with 22.4 % for women.
In 2016, 78.2 % from the persons accessing emergency services were below 34 years of age, 18 % persons were aged between 35 and 64 years, and 2 % were persons over 64 years.
llllllllllllli
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Fig. 1. Prevalence of HVB, HVC and HIV among drug consumers allowed for specialised treatment medical services in Romania, comparative data 2004-2016, (%) Data source: Report of the National Anti-Drug Agency regarding drugs situation, 2017
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Directly associated deaths Indirectly associated deaths
Average age at which death occurs
Fig. 2. Distribution of death cases and the evolution of the average age in the case of deaths associated to drug consumption, on types of deaths (direct and indirect) Data source: Report of the National Anti-Drug Agency regarding drugs situation, 2017
Regarding the consumption model, in 72.7 % cases was registered the use of a single psycho-active substance, while in 18.4 % cases was noticed the use of multiple drugs.
Regarding the geographic distribution of this casuistic, depending on the economic region of development from Romania where the medical emergency was recorded, a diminishment in the number of cases is noticeable (Fig. 3) for the majority of regions, save for the North-West region with an increase by 10.9 pp against 2015 in the year 2016.
The economic effects of drug trafficking and consumption refer predominantly to the following aspects:
the creation of an underground drugs' economy;
lack of incomes, poverty state of the addicted persons which brings along also the feeling of insecurity;
individuals' security considering the economic aspect is approached also in the context of incomes' inequality and of the poverty phenomenon;
subsequent medical consequences of drug use might be translated into economic costs of the respective society, as well.
From the economic viewpoint, might be considered also the costs of the states for: assistance and recovery programmes for persons consuming drugs (treatments with mometasone, naltrexone, etc.);
programmes, campaigns, and projects of prevention for the population; borders control;
detention of individuals who committed crimes against the drugs' regime; supporting the judiciary system prosecuting criminals.
At international level a series of complete and comparative studies were made for measuring the costs of the drugs' industry for the society providing for pertinent
Fig. 3. Distribution of medical emergencies as result of the use of psychoactive substances, on Romania's regions of development, in 2016 Data source: Report of the National Anti-Drug Agency regarding drugs situation, 2017
data, even though the figures are different from one country to another depending on the methodology and policy.
The studies realised in EU member-states, and in non-member states suggest the existence of a considerable variance among countries from the viewpoint of the nature and severity of the economic crisis impact on the budgets and expenditures corresponding to drugs' matter.
In countries like the United Kingdom, Estonia, Ireland, Hungary, and Croatia after a period of diminishing specific public expenditures regarding drugs', a slight increase is noticeable after 2013. In other countries, an annual increase was noticed in total expenditures regarding drugs (Finland, Luxemburg, Belgium and Sweden).
Other major categories of costs were represented by the values for enforcing laws against drug trafficking, and trial expenditures, the costs for imprisonment and prevention, the ones for care and rehabilitation, including the treatment of patients with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) related to drugs.
Drug abuse is encountered most frequently among youths with ages between 15 and 35 years, with a particular concentration for the age group 18 to 25 years. Thus, here are included also those who have entered or are about to enter the labour market. Considering the high rates of unemployment in many countries, entering this market is often a major issue. Drug consumption might limit the chances of entering or remaining in the labour market, while the frustration caused by failing to find jobs favours drug consumption, and thereby are created vicious circles.
Very often there is a strong correlation between unemployment and drug consumption, both in developed countries, and in developing countries as well. A study showed that the "difference in the drug consumption among unemployed was 60 % higher than among the employed" [4].
Another recent study, realised by the International Labour Office and the European Community, which examined the "effects of drug and alcohol abuse on the job in European countries found that more than half of the interviewed employers reported that specific performance deficiencies, and absences from the job are the result of drug and alcohol related issues. In about two out of five cases, the organisations were forced to fire the employees on grounds related to drugs and alcohol, and this shows clearly the severity of the issue" [5].
The prices for drugs, in contrast to those for other raw materials reflect firstly the high level of risk involved in their production and trafficking. The prices and profits of the drugs' industry are not proportional to the factors' costs, but seem to be related proportionally to the risk and monopoly degree for each stage of the production and marketing costs. Heroin and cocaine have shown a surprising correlation throughout the years 1980, and at the beginning of the 1990s and behaved as a tandem; "which suggests that perceived risks, probably also because of the success or failure degree in law enforcement were indeed a major factor for setting the prices, while changes in the prices of drugs in supplying countries had only a minor influence on retail prices in Europe and the United States of America" [6].
The drug prices' elasticity is an essential aspect, not only for evaluating the economic consequences of drug consumption but also for evaluating the impact of prohibition efforts, from which many are based on the hypothesis that high prices will reduce consumption.
Prices' elasticity provides information about the measure in which a change might be expected in the price of merchandise that affects its demand. The question is whether for drug consumption, as in the case of most goods and services, the demand decreases as reply to prices' increase and grows as answer to prices' dimi-nishment. Even though it might be stated that there is price elasticity, there are drug addicts who will attempt by any possible means to obtain drugs, irrespective of the costs involved. The direct relationship between prices and demand is not always clear. The emergence of other variables, such as an anti-drug campaign in education might diminish demand and, consequently, trigger price reduction. The studies suggest that demand becomes progressively more elastic, or inelastic together with the addiction level regarding the substance.
A frequent scenario is, in producing countries, that incomes from narcotics either are placed in deposits abroad, or used for legal luxury imports none of them having effects on the level of local prices. Considering the hierarchical structure of the drugs' industry, most profits are concentrated by a relatively low number of persons, while cultivators operate often under rather competitive market conditions and, therefore, their earnings are relatively low. "In each stage of the refining or preparation process the number of participants decreases and profits grow until at the top, or wholesale level, remain only few sellers controlling the majority of the market both for consumption and production" [7]. These inconsistencies, perhaps more than poverty itself, are often considered as a preliminary condition for drug abuse thus creating a vicious circle.
Capital entries resulting from drug exports and simple capital entries from profits as result of drugs play an important role, as well. Such funds tend to be extremely volatile, reacting rapidly to changes in the political and legal environment and turning thereby governments' hostages of the international money resulting from drugs. The financial flows prove often to be beyond the Government's traditional instruments of macroeconomic control.
Considered with respect to dynamics, the long-term negative effects of the illicit substances industry seem obvious. The countries with flexible exchange rates with be faced with over-evaluated exchange rates, and often obliged to roll high licit commercial deficits, and give up the chance of developing profitable export alternatives. "In the case of Bolivia, for instance, the over-evaluated exchange rate results from the flow of dollars generated by drugs, and this hindered the local leather and textile industry to develop against cheap imports from abroad" [6].
While global funds originating from drug trafficking and not negligible by far are still modest compared with the size of the aggregated economies of the developed countries, they are extremely high by comparison with the economies of many developing countries. Even the lowest estimate (85 billion dollars) means an amount higher than the individual GDPs of three quarters from the 207 economies of the world.
In spite of the high amounts mentioned above, the impact of the drugs industry on the domestic economies seems minimal in the majority of countries. This fact is rather surprising, considering the traditional model of redistributing from small income to groups with high income that increases, in fact, the global rate of savings.
A particular danger developing in countries that aim to the swift privatisation of state assets, such as Eastern Europe is that privatised assets turn into a target for criminal investments. This fact tends to undermine both the bases of the state and of the new market economy. The paradox is that privatisation takes place with the purpose of increasing efficiency, but if financed criminally it might prove to be extremely inefficient from the economic point of view on long term.
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) estimates that about a quarter of the European adult population has used one illegal drug during their lifetime. Usually, cocaine and cannabis are the most popular -the report stipulates that on the entire continent about 2000 tons of cannabis are ingested yearly. Meanwhile, in Romania, individuals use so much that over one third of the persons entering in treatment programmes for the first time have undergone treatments because of the new psychoactive substances. It was reported that 51 % from users have used injections with the new psychoactive substances.
The negative impact of drug consumption on health is obvious, established and documented scientifically. "This fact proves clearly that the amplitude of the drug consumption, and the health issues both for dependent persons in question and also for the society which is burdened with the health costs related to drug abuse" [6].
The damages for the environment as result of producing or trafficking drugs are caused in the producing countries by deforestation, by the increase in monocultures,
by the processing of harvested plants for drugs, and the use of dangerous chemical products for the environment without adopting the required precautionary measures. Even though the damages to the environment as result of drugs' production were documented to a certain extent, the efforts up to now for repairing the resulting damages from drugs' agriculture and production industry are minimal.
Conclusions
In the 21st century, drugs' trafficking and consumption have exceeded the stage of simple phenomena and they unfold as some of the most severe and worrying issues faced by the human civilisation. It might be maintained that currently the drugs' phenomenon exceeded the reasonable tolerance level regarding understanding and standards of humanity nowadays.
Drugs' consumption and trafficking generates direct and indirect effects on the humanity revealing their concern rising character. The entirety of some social-economic, psychological and biological conditions constitute negative influence factors on the social and biological heredity and on the socio-family, professional and economic state thus generating effects of insecurity, affective and economic instability, of transitory or durable inadequacy to social exigencies, triggering the rejection and revolt against habits, traditions, and system of values practiced by society.
Drug trafficking is in close relation to drugs' production because as long as the production of such substances exists, then also consumers will be anywhere in the world, and the road of drugs to final consumer is, in fact, drug trafficking that might be achieved under various forms.
According to the yearly report of the European Union - EMCDDA-Europol, many of the criminal groups that in the past dealt largely with heroin trafficking, extended currently their activities and are involved in cocaine and methampheta-mine drug trafficking in the entire European Union, and the traffic routes are the same ones as those used for heroin trafficking in the past.
The globalisation phenomenon turned gradually into a factor favouring fully drug trafficking and consumption in the world, and many of the countries became gradually points of transit, of warehousing or production.
At the European Union level several efforts were made in the acerbic fight against drugs, so that all EU member states have adopted a European pact which provides that member-states and EU institutions cooperate for putting a stop to illegal drugs' production and trafficking.
Considered based on categories of drugs, the market is rather "plentiful", as consumers might or have the possibility of consuming any drug they wish for.
Drug consumption and trafficking have major impact on the economic situation of a state because the economy of a state producing or exporting high quantities of drugs tends to become dependent on this resource for money, just as a drug consumer becomes dependent on drug. In this way, various criminal organisation might appear that are concerned only with drug trafficking at world and national level and,
implicitly, the money obtained from trafficking are part and parcel of an illegal and 'dirty' circuit which is inside the underground economy, or the 'money laundering' process.
Drug consumption has implications on the economic sector, as well, but this is hard to analyse because at world level there are no real and consistent data regarding the true amounts of money circulating and gained as result of drug trafficking and consumption.
The economic costs related to drug consumption are analysed together with other fields in which they generate effects, such as health, public safety, and criminality.
It is difficult to obtain correct and precise information regarding the economic impact had by drug consumption, because there are various ways by which those involved in such activities find various ways of hiding, or which help in making harder their identification. However, the social impact of drugs might be seen much easily by wider research at society's level, and the effects resulting from this situation are multiple and long lasting.
List of used sources
1. World Drug Report 2017 [Electronic resource]. - Mode of access: http://www.unodc.org. -Date of access: 10.10.2018.
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3. Edwards, G. Drogurile: o tenta^ie ucigasa / G. Edwards. - Bucuresti : Editura Paralela 45, 2006.
4. Mott, J. Self-reported Drug Misuse in England and Wales: Findings from the 1992 / J. Mott, C. Mirrlees-Black // British Crime Survey, Home Office, Research and Planning Unit Paper 89. - London, 1995.
5. Smith, J. P. Alcohol and Drugs in the Workplace: Attitudes, Policies and Programmes in the European Community / J. P. Smith. - Geneva : International Labour Organisation, 1993.
6. Farrell, G. Cocaine and Heroin in Europe 1983-1993. A cross national comparison of trafficking and prices / G. Farrell, K. Mansur, M. Tullis // British J. of Criminology. - 1996. - Vol. 36, Nr. 2. - P. 255-281.
7. Van Ours, J. The Price Elasticity of Hard Drugs: The case of Opium in the Dutch East Indies 1923- 1938 / Jan van Ours // J. of Political Economics. - 1995. - Nr. 2. - P. 261-279.
Поступила 16.10.2018 г.
