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The problem of nationalism at the modern stage of the development of society
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14420/en.2015.1.9
Dmitry Alexandrovich Ilchenko, Deputy General Director of the State Research and Technology Center «Science» (Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution), e-mail: dimus00710@yandex.ru
Natalya Petrovna Smirnova, research scientist at the State Research and Technology Center «Science» (Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution), e-mail: natalek92@list.ru
Abstract. This article contains the analysis of the concept and nature of
nationalism, along with the problem of nationalism in the modern Russia. It explains the classification and the causes of nationalism, while the problems of nationalism became particularly urgent in the context of globalization developing amidst severe crisis of the modern civilization. The authors believe that the danger of Nazism originating in our country is now relatively low, though the very fact that this inhuman political doctrine has not ceased its existence can cause concern. Modern nationalism is attempting to restrain the integration and internationalization processes, equally aiding to preservation of the diversity and wealth of nations, cultures and languages. It means that the essence of the national issue in its modern state can be reduced to one phrase: how to learn to cohabit and live together amicably.
Keywords: nationalism, types of nationalism, contemporary nationalism,
nationalism as the political danger, problem of nationalism.
Introduction
National and ethnic problems are among the most burning and sensitive matters at the modern stage of the human development. Consequently, the study of the nationalism phenomenon in the history of political thought is emerging full-blown.
Intensification of nationalism processes is the most apparent for the nations resting at the early stages of social, political and economic development. It is not uncommon when they perceive the adjustment to the global industrial civilization as the economic and cultural expansion of the more developed neighbour nations along with pressing their alien life style. The similar situation begins to form in modern Russia as well. At the turn of millennium, within the lifetime of one generation, the former system of values collapsed and the new one started
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emerging, resulting in the feeling of insecurity for the vast number of people. Clearly distinguished life in society started losing its definiteness, men facing the problem of choosing new guidelines and landmarks. Accordingly, the requests are growing for sustainable social identity and the related psychological comfort, which is often manifested in nationalism.
Assessing nationalism morally and ethically, most researchers recognize its immense historical role in formation of various nations and countries. It is mentioned that just over the past one and a half or two centuries nationalism brought consolidation to France, unification to Italy and Germany, restoration of political sovereignty to Poland, Finland and Greece, achievement of independence to many nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America. It includes former Soviet republics as well. Assumption is that it is nationalism, which destroyed and wiped off the world map the great global empires, such as Austro-Hungarian, British, Ottoman and Russian empires. It must be noted that great many cultural, art, literature and human sciences achievements have been determined by nationalism to a considerable extent.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that nationalism was a powerful tool in the hands of dictatorships in Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal, while coupled and intertwined with fascism and racism, nationalism has seriously damaged the development of plenty of nations worldwide.
Hundreds of books are devoted to the problem of nationalism, searching its roots and origins, disclosing the essence and nature of this phenomenon. However, it is impossible to assert that the mystery of nationalism is completely deciphered.
In the late nineties of 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century, nationalism showed prominently in political and social life of Russia. It can be said that a burst of national intolerance was evidenced, while nationalism made a comeback, finding its way in nationalist parties. The subject matter of our research is the idea of nationalism, while its target can be defined as prospects for future development of Russia in the context of nationalism.
The concept and nature of nationalism
There is and probably can be no brief and exhaustive definition for nationalism. Upon study of various existing definitions of this phenomenon, one can specify the range of attributes and qualities of nationalism, involving display of respect, love and loyalty to the nation, people, ethnos, which this or that man belongs to, involving loyalty that touches on self-denial at present, obeisance to and warship of the past and aspiration to prosperity, glory and success in future. In this nation, each individual is an integrant, while the nation cannot and should not rest its man without protection, both inside and outside its life environment, and vice versa, each individual pertaining to this nation shall always be ready to sacrifice himself for the sake of the people. Nationalism is frequently confused with patriotism, though there is quite a gulf between these two concepts. Nationalism involves love beyond limits and measure along with readiness to self-sacrifice for the sake of one's people and ethnos, while patriotism is the same love and readiness to self-sacrifice for the sake of the country and motherhood.
Nationalism is a moral identity of the nation of the sacred nature; instinct of national self-preservation, faith in strength of one's nation; predominance of the interests of one's ethnos over those of all the others, resulting in the nation's
ability to struggle effectively against any hostile rogue elements. Nationalism appears to be the utmost phase of development of patriotism, where the central message is that the nation is primary or primordial, while the state is secondary or derivative1.
Now we turn to the very essence of nationalism. The concept of nation is inevitably giving rise to specific political moves, which compose nationalism, if systematized. Generally speaking, nationalism is a political movement aimed at expression and protection of interests of a national community, either in the international field, or within the relations with the governmental power. However, the first case constitutes nationalism of the leading or the primary (core) nation, while the second one is nationalism of an ethnic minority.
The national movements are intrinsically aimed at using political mechanisms, both domestically and internationally, in order to increase the solidarity among the citizens of the similar descent and to protect their interests. With the view to political environment, nationalism is effective only when and where the domestic relations lack cultural and social integrity of the society or certain social groups.
Real life experience demonstrated that nationalism is not merely used for the purposes of acknowledgement the existence of the nation and its specific interests, but also claims the priority of nation-focused needs over all other hopes and plans of people. Appreciation of national priorities is often intertwined with the concepts of independence, which in its turn nearly always calls forth the claims for a certain part of national sovereignty along with political and administrative formalization thereof. All that can imply providing certain autonomy to the nation within the state boundaries or even creation of an independent state formation.
In most cases, the goal of nationalism appears to involve increasing efficiency of the government, introducing reforms capable to improve considerably cultural and social protection of the citizens of the certain descent or nationality. Another popular target of national movements consists of obtaining national and cultural autonomy by national groups, which is likely to secure additional opportunities for the citizens of the certain descent, extending rights to specific forms of political representation, initiatives in the legislative process.
In light of the utmost political significance of national movements in modern states, nationalism is often used as the political front for radically different social forces taking power. Such form of nationalism frequently becomes the disguise or the tool for penetration to the political market of the forces uninterested in publicity and disclosure of their true objectives.
Types and causes of nationalism
Many researchers believe that nationalism is the ideology and politics exploiting intensively national feelings and emotions. We would like to consider in detail the classification introduced by Louis Snyder and Carlton J. H. Hayes.
According to Snyder, there are four types of nationalism:
1. Integrating nationalism (1845-1871). During this period, according to Snyder, nationalism appeared to be a unifying force that contributed to consolidation of the feudal disunited nations (Italy, Germany).
2. Disintegrating nationalism (1871-1890). The achievements of
1 Stroganov V.I. Russian nationalism, its essence, history and mission. - M., 1997. - P. 87.
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nationalism in the context of unification of Italy and German inspired struggle for independence of the nations composing Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and other empires, resulting finally in their dissolution.
3. Aggressive nationalism (1900-1945). First half of the 20th century saw the heated conflict of the contrary national interests that found expression in the two world wars. At this stage, nationalism becomes identic to imperialism.
4. Contemporary nationalism (1945 - the present day). The new nationalism announced itself mainly by means of anti-colonial revolutions. This period is distinguished by global expansion of nationalism1.
In his classification, Hayes identifies the following types of nationalism: Jacobin, traditional, liberal, integral and economic.
Both classification lack explanations and are merely representative of the fact that nationalism consists of politics and ideology, exploiting national feelings for achievement of their aims.
We would like to give consideration to the most extensive classification suggested by E.A. Pozdnyakov.
1. Ethnic nationalism - is a nationalism of oppressed or enslaved people, struggling for their national freedom; it is a nationalism of the nation aspiring to obtain its own sovereignty. There is a certain political and ideological platform corresponding to it.
2. Sovereign (national) nationalism - is a nationalism of the nations (people) formally established as sovereign states, targeted at implementing their national and public interests before the similar nations.
3. Grassroots nationalism - is a demonstration of nationalist feelings at the level of personality or small social groups. It usually consists of xenophobia, hostile attitude to aliens, outlanders and members of other ethnic groups2.
Finally, it should be noted that nationalism is nothing else but conjunction of ideology and politics in their unity and integrity. If at least one component is removed, we will obtain the feeling of affection to one's people and loyalty to one's country, that is, ethical categories with no real power. But with the adequate ideological and political platform, it becomes nationalism able to create and dissolute countries, unify and disintegrate people, and under certain conditions even excite hostility, conflicts and hatred.
Nationalism has always been perceived ambiguously and dubiously. In Marxist-Leninist historiography and political science, nationalism of oppressed nations and nationalism of people in colonial and dependent countries were clearly distinguished as positive, while bourgeois nationalism used to be considered purely negative, though it frequently played some formative roles. As for proletarian, socialist or communist nationalism, it was completely impossible, such epithets being paired exclusively with the internationalism.
Perception of the contemporary internationalism in the Russian society is also binary. Many people condemn and criticize it, regarding it as a destructive ideology, while others give their strong support, which is frequently aggressive (e.g. skinheads).
In the late 20th century - beginning of the 21st century, the nationalist
1 Pozdnyakov E.A. Nation. Nationalism. National interests. - M., 1994. - P. 39.
2 Ibid.
problems became unprecedently acute and urgent in Russia. What are the reasons for the nationalist ideology expanding at the end of the 20th century in the country fighting nationalism, namely, fascism as its extreme and arduous form? Firstly, it should be mentioned that Russia is a multi-ethnic country with over one hundred and thirty nations and ethnic groups, so the national problems have always been there. However, in the nineties of the last century, national and racial conflicts in Russia as well as confrontation of certain ethnic groups hit record high. The reasons for this phenomenon were lack of stability in the country and low quality of life, uneven development of the regions and intensification of migration processes, growth of cultural and ethnic conflicts, war in Chechnya, separatism and terrorism.
Nationalism in the context of globalization
In the context of globalization developing amidst severe crisis of the modern civilization, the problems of nationalism have become even more relevant. This phenomenon has caused mixed effects. On the one hand, living environments of ethnic and national communities are converging to the fullest extent, while, on the other hand, globalization results in such communities losing their identity, providing incentives to nationalism as the certain response. Therefore, globalization and nationalism constitute interdependent and often inseparable phenomena of today's world. In Russia, the urgent character of the problem of nationalism is not just related to globalization, but also caused by lots of factors established during the period of «socialist national building». In light of breakup of the USSR, transition of the Russian society from the Soviet system to liberal and democratic one, lots of «time bombs» planted by the founders of the USSR have exploded or are ready to explode.
The problem of nationalism
There have been multiple examples of nationalism in history, the most striking and recent one being national socialism or German Nazism as the extreme and violent form of nationalism. The razed economy, total diffidence and apathy, mass unemployment - that what was Germany like after its defeat in the World War I. Hitler came to power and managed to put into the heads of the Germans the idea of their superiority over all other nations. This idea found its followers and proponents, both in Germany and abroad. National Socialism became the ruling ideology for the «Third Reich»1.
What was the essence of the German Nazism? Its ideologues proclaimed the German nation to be the supreme value, for the sake of which one could stop at nothing. Jews and Gypsies were regarded as outlaws subject to immediate extermination, while it was decided to leave the Slavs alive, though just as the cheap workforce. Negroes and Mulattoes were irritant for Hitler, too2.
Nationalism ruined Germany. The logical corollary of the national socialist ideology appeared to be the attempt of winning over the «living space» that resulted in exhausting war in the East. However, Hitler played the wrong card: the allied powers battered the troops of the «Third Reich» and its co-belligerents in Europe, Africa, Asia and Pacific. That brought the cure from nationalism to the Germans.
1 IvlevK. On the history of nationalism // Patriot. - 2003. - № 25. - P. 32.
2 VerderyK.A. Nations and nationalism. - Moscow, 2008. - P. 247.
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Today we can witness the renewal of Nazism in the form of Neo-Nazism, not just in the defeated Germany or its partners. This phenomenon affected the nations of ex-Soviet republics (especially, Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians) who survived the horror of Nazi invasion in full. And now, the ideas of national exclusiveness are proclaimed not just by some politicians standing alone, but the organizations as well, skilfully confusing the man in the street and misrepresenting nationalism as patriotism.
We believe, the danger of Nazism originating in our country is relatively low, though the fact that this inhuman political doctrine has not ceased its existence with the non-decreasing amount of supporters rings the bell for our sad future. Namely, can the humanity digest the lessons of the past and prevent the wreck from repeating?
Modern nationalism in Russia
Today in Russia, one can observe the considerable growth of nationalist trends, demonstrated not just by the activities of Russian nationalist groups and organizations, but also by millions of votes for the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, most of them having been produced by nationalistic electorate, as well as the intensified separatist trends in the national republics of the Russian Federation. What is then the social and psychological basis for various displays of nationalism?
It is obvious that one of its bearers (probably, in the largest scale) is the lumpen sector of society. Way back then, Karl Marx pictured lumpen, the 'scum of all classes' as the layer of the working class that lacked firm social position and, therefore, unstable and corrupted. Nationalism attracts lumpen, providing him with the consciousness of superiority over the members of all other nations, for the only reason of his pertaining to the certain national society. No labour, efforts, talents and merits are needed to put oneself higher than a Tatar, Armenian, Uzbek or Jude, for the only reason of being Russian, or to estimate oneself higher than any Russian, only because of being Chechen (or Jude, Armenian, Georgian etc.). Nationalism is disintegrating nations1.
Certain nationalist tradition that used to be oppressed in the past, but was preserved and is still cultivating and sustaining nationalist trends in the Russian environment, serves as one of the factors affecting the current social processes. After all, there was not just the factor of "international friendship" fostered extensively in the USSR, but the residual conditions as well for covert tension in the ethnic relations and negative perception of other nationalities. At the first glance, everything on the surface of the social life seemed to be in line with the official internationalism ideology, but as soon as its bondage turned more relaxed, the national problems began to appear during perestroika.
Collapse of the USSR resulted in the new problems and controversies emerging and becoming more acute and promoted in many ways the growth of nationalism in all ex-Soviet republics. As soon as the new states obtained sovereignty, they experienced the need in ideological foundation for their legitimacy, the nationalism ideology having become the most suitable for it.
As for Russia, it was likened to Germany dated back to the time of The Versailles Treaty. Russia and Russians used to be identified with the Soviet Union
1 Ibid.
all over the world, but then the mighty super power turned into the economically uncompetitive state dependent on the Western countries. Russia rolled back in terms of economy, demography and ecology. The mortality rate exceeded the birth rate. The very existence of the Russian science was endangered, it being the only instrument for our country to close the technology lag behind the Western countries. Russia became the country with no past and future, all its recent history having been revised and reconsidered, while the life and efforts of multiple generations of Soviet people was cancelled and robbed of meaning. Upon collapse of the USSR, 25 million Russians lost their native land and found themselves in the countries, adjacent to Russia, but already foreign. In some ex-Soviet states, Russians were afflicted, pushed abroad and oppressed by national discrimination. The country and the nation suffered the dreadful national humiliation. Isn't it the ground for nationalism? It is surprising that its takeoff appeared not so potent, as it could have been expected.
Nationalism as the political danger
Growth and expansion of nationalism constitutes a great political danger for Russia. For this reason, it should be blocked with barriers.
Nationalism became the banner for reactionary political forces in Russia during wars and revolutions of the early 20th century. Communists managed to get into power under the slogan of internationalism and global working-class solidarity, these slogans having been actually put into practice. Solution of the internal national problems was related to building socialism, economic and cultural progress, that is, was regarded as the part of the general process of social development with the dominance of the class-based approach.
However, as early as before the war, the destruction of national workforce began under the banner of internationalism and upon the pretext of fighting local nationalism. The wave of repressive measures covered all national republics, the Russian people suffering from it as much as the others did. During the Great Patriotic War, internationalism was replaced with patriotism and sovereignty. This period was marked with repressions against whole nations, while complete departure from the internationalism doctrine was characterized with the fight against cosmopolitism initiated in 1948, the ex-internationalists suddenly becoming «rootless cosmopolitans». However, the party leaders were unlikely to turn to nationalism1. The new policy became the manifestation of patriotism as the party ideological concept of sovereignty, the difference between patriotism and nationalism being explained above.
During the years of stagnation in the sphere of national relations and the ethnic problem as a whole, like in many other fields, the double think could be observed, that is, the split between the real life process and its ideological and propagandist vestment. Plenty of things were concealed from the public opinion and assessment, including public trends, real-world problems, tension and conflicts. Unbiased research of the sphere of national relations and public dimension of this field was not permitted as well. The national issue was formally regarded as solved and non-discussible. All that was perverting the public consciousness.
The forces that came to power in Russia at the beginning of the nineties
1 SokolovM. Nationalism and liberalism // Expert. - 2004. - № 1. - P. 100.
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of the last century riding along on the democratic wave set the goal to put an end to «empire» at any cost and to get free of the power of the «cente», that is federal or union authority. By so doing, they rejected all positive achievements made in the relations of the nations and ethnic rapprochement progressed for the years of soviet government and ignored totally the patriotic sentiments of the majority of the Soviet people who voted at the referendum of 17 March 1991 for preservation of the USSR.
The historical paradox lies in the fact that Russia, aggregating territories for centuries and having created a powerful state, acted then as the main initiator of dissolution of this state, proclaiming its sovereignty and priority of its laws over the union ones. For the Russians, this act constituted the interruption of the long-term historical tradition. This disorder along with the consequent events contributed to growth and enhancement of nationalism in the country. In the meantime, by destructing the USSR, Russian «democrats» played straight into the hands of the local separatists with nationalism as their power game banner.
The wave of anti-Russian nationalism emerged in Ukraine, especially in its Western regions. President RF Vladimir Putin described this situation in the following way: «What happened? People simply got sick and tired of poverty, stealing and the impudence of the authorities, their relentless greed and corruption, from oligarchs who climbed to power. People got fed up with all this. When society and a country slide into this position, people try to look for ways out of the situation and, regrettably, sometimes address those who offer simple solutions exploiting current difficulties. Some of the latter are nationalists. Didn't we have the same in the 1990s? Didn't we have this «parade of sovereignties» or nationalism that flared up so brightly? We have had all this. We have been through all this! And this takes place everywhere, so it happened in Ukraine. These nationalistic elements exploited the situation and brought it to the state that we are witnessing now. So, it is not our failure. This is a failure within Ukraine itself»1. Nationalism started spreading in the Central Asian and Transcaucasian republics. There is local nationalism and separatism existing in Russia as well.
In order to overcome global problems and dangers, it is necessary to consolidate the efforts of all folks on the Earth and the entire humanity. Such dangers involve not just the threat of depletion of the non-renewable natural resources, but plenty of other dangers as well. The prospects of segregation and national closeness of Russia suggested by nationalists shall rather intensify these dangers for Russia, than protect it from them. The actual regime perceives this danger and attempts to resist it. «As for radical nationalism, we have always fought it and will continue to fight it, - mentioned Vladimir Putin during the last hotline. - I always say that nationalism is a very dangerous phenomenon that can have a destructive effect on the integrity of the Russian state, which has developed as a multinational and multi-confessional society»2.
The modern world is facing the processes of internationalization of the social life caused by the global market dynamics, technologic progress, development of science and education and growing mobility of population. These processes are inevitable and there is no sense in opposing them. Nevertheless,
1 Web page of the President of the Russian Federation at www.kremlin.ru
2 Ibid.
they cause controversy as they collide with the traditional national cultures and are controversial in their nature as they not just muting national contrasts, but create new opportunities for national development as well.
Modern nationalism is attempting to restrain the integration and internationalization processes. However, the path of nationalism is leading nowhere, its lines being unable to provide any solutions for the emerging controversies and generate the guidelines for cohabitation of various cultures.
The humanity has developed enough to understand that the diversity of nations, cultures and languages is its wealth and heritage, and there is no need to abandon it. It means that the essence of the national issue in its modern state can be reduced to one phrase: how to learn to cohabit and live together amicably. The ways of resolving the problem of nationalism National controversies and conflicts will be still emerging in future, as the interrelations and cooperation between the nations has not just ethnical component, but economic, political, cultural and other elements as well. Therefore, it is the national policy and refinement of conflict resolution mechanisms that has priority for ensuring sane cross-national relations.
Global experience shows that the people of various nationalities and descent can perfectly cohabit, provided that one nation is not putting oneself over the other, if national identity of a human being is not emphasized as the key and core attribute, if the language and culture of each nation can develop without impediment, if people of different nationalities relying on the principle that «my freedom is limited with the freedom of another man» do respect the customs and traditions of each other.
Another important factor is the attitude of the nations to each other, what is prevailing in their feelings, whether it is a balanced and kind attitude to the certain nation, or hostility, animosity and even hatred. Negative attitude can be inflamed instantly and eliminated slowly. Accordingly, it is so essential to have a coherent policy aimed at peaceful settlement of differences and prevention of national clashes and bloody skirmishes. It can involve democracy, political stability, development of integration processes in the CIS, right of nations to self-determination up to obtaining statehood, autonomy of nations on the issues of culture and language and acknowledgement of national equality. The important role is also given to intolerance to and prevention of mutual hostility of nations, negative attitude to alien customs, traditions, peculiarities etc.1
Whatever controversies emerged in the relations of the nations, they should not ignore the interests of each other. The world is dominated by integration processes, the epoch of national wars fading out. Learning how to live on together amicably is a huge work, affecting all sides of social life, such as economics, politics, social and cultural spheres at once. It is necessary to think over how to turn the concept of Russia's national renaissance into the collective concern for all the peoples, each making the contribution to the common goal subject to its abilities, with the crucial role and liability of the Russian nation and with the movement forward relying upon the principles of democracy, patriotism, justice, humanism and mutual respect. There and then, nationalism shall not pass to Russia.
1 BarkashovA.P. The alphabet of Russian nationalism. - M., 2009. - P. 220.
Conclusion
Emerging ethnical conflicts and confrontations became rather common for Russia. Nationalism tends to occur in the context of the low life quality, intense differentiation of the society. Sipping to various social strata, it conduces to rise of nationalist oriented political parties and rebellious youths.
At the moment, the direct threat to democratic liberties emanating from the radical nationalist movement appears to be quite subtle. At the same time, due to a range of economic and social factors, the current regime is likely to move gradually towards more radical forms of nationalist ideology. In response to the problems related to ethnic conflicts and xenophobic clashes, the government should choose and pursue consecutive well-reasoned policy.
It must be noted that people of various nationalities and descent can perfectly cohabit, provided that one nation is not putting oneself over the other, if national identity of a human being is not emphasized as the key and core attribute, if the language and culture of each nation can develop without impediment, if people of different nationalities are respecting the customs and traditions of each other.
References:
BarkashovA.P. The alphabet of Russian nationalism. - M., 2009. Ivlev K. On the history of nationalism // Patriot. - 2003. - № 25. Khabibullin K.N. National identity and internationalist behaviour. - Leningrad, 1989.
Pozdnyakov E.A. Nation. Nationalism. National interests. - M., 1994. Sokolov M. Nationalism and liberalism // Expert. - 2004. - № 1. Stroganov V.I. Russian nationalism, its essence, history and mission. - M., 1997.
Verdery K.A. Nations and nationalism. - M., 2008.
Web page of the President of the Russian Federation at www.kremlin.ru
