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THE PROBLEM OF LEXICOGRAPHY
Avlaeva Saida Bozorovna
Karshi state university
ABSTRACT
The article provides the discussion of different definitions and prevailed approaches of lexicography and some related areas. Some linguists regarded lexicography as an independent scholarly discipline while others regarded it as a sub-discipline of linguistics. And the article analyses some types of dictionary which are involved by lexicographers .
Keywords: editing, lexicography, practical lexicography, theoretical lexicography, independent discipline, prevail, approach, Metalexicography, linguistics
В статье проводится обсуждение различных определений и преобладающих подходов лексикографии и некоторых смежных областей. Некоторые лингвисты рассматривали лексикографию как самостоятельную научную дисциплину, в то время как другие считали ее поддисциплиной лингвистики. А также в статье анализируются некоторые виды словарей, которыми занимаются лексикографы.
Ключевые слова: редактирование, лексикография, практическая лексикография, теоретическая лексикография, самостоятельная дисциплина, преобладание, подход, металексикография, языкознание.
INTRODUCTION
The simplest explanation of lexicography is that it is a scholarly discipline that involves compiling, writing, or editing dictionaries. Lexicography is widely considered an independent scholarly discipline, though it is a subfield within linguistics. Many consider lexicography to be divided into two related areas. The act of writing, or editing dictionaries is known as practical lexicography. The analysis or description of the vocabulary of a particular language, and the meaning that links certain words to others in a dictionary, is known as theoretical lexicography. Theoretical lexicography is especially concerned with developing theories regarding the structural and semantic relationships among words in the dictionary. Since it involves theoretical analysis of the lexicon, theoretical lexicography is also known as Metalexicography.
АННОТАЦИЯ
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Different approaches prevail, ranging from Atkins and Rundell (2008: 4) saying, with regard to a theory of lexicography, that they "do not believe that such a thing exists", and Bejoint (2010: 381) saying: "I simply do not believe that there exists a theory of lexicography, and I very much doubt that there can be one", to lexicographers who firmly believe in a lexicographic theory, cf. Wiegand (1989), Bergenholtz and Tarp (2003), Gouws (2011), Tarp (2012). It is important to note that the supporters of a lexicographic theory do not all adhere to the same theory: there are different lexicographic theories but they all acknowledge the fact that the lexicographic practice is complemented by a theoretical component and that lexicography, with dictionaries as its subject matter, should be regarded as an independent discipline.
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
Wiegand (1984:13) categorically denies that lexicography is a branch of applied linguistics or of lexicology, but when working outside a specific lexicographic theory, relations between lexicography and other disciplines are often postulated that go against the grain of lexicography as an independent discipline.
Lexicographers like Urdang (1963: 594) believe that "Lexicography, in practice is a form of applied linguistics ..." and Sinclair (1984: 7) denies the prospect of a theory of lexicography and believes that the relevant theory is to be found in or via the areas of linguistics and information technology. Geeraerts assumes that lexicography is part of linguistics but can hardly justify it as being a form of applied linguistics.
As a linguistic discipline, lexicography has paradoxical nature. On the one hand, almost everybody will agree to classify lexicography as a form of applied linguistics, but on the other hand, it is virtually impossible to give an adequate reply to the question what linguistic theory lexicography might be an application of. Lexicography, both practical and theoretical, has a long history, which predates the development of modern linguistics and has developed independently of it.
There is a definite confusion in the metalexicographic discussion regarding the scope of lexicography and the borders with and relations to other disciplines. Henning Bergenholtz regarded lexicography as an independent discipline that does show some relation to parts of different other disciplines, e.g. information science and linguistics. His approach is not the only one; many people regard lexicography not as an independent discipline but as part of linguistics. Henning
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Bergenholtz regarded part as lexicography while other people regarded as terminography or encyclopedology. He did not agree with that approach.
By giving attention to the foundation of lexicography, we can found out that some great linguists within Samuel Johnson's "Plan of a Dictionary" (1747) is an example of an early contribution to theoretical lexicography, and Philip Gove, editorin-chief of Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961) was the first dictionary editor to acknowledge explicitly the affect of new period of linguistics on his lexicographical practice. This raises the argument whether lexicography can be considered as a sub-discipline of linguistics. Some academic lexicographers do view lexicography as an applied linguistic practice; but some would argue that lexicography sits more comfortably within the broader remit of reference science, since it has much in common with other reference disciplines.
"The basic difference between lexicography and linguistics," says Sven Tarp, "is that they have two totally different subject fields: The subject field of linguistics is language, whereas the subject field of lexicography is dictionaries and lexicographic works in general" ("Beyond Lexicography" in Lexicography at a Crossroads, 2009). In 1971, Ladislav Zgusta,who mas Diachronic linguist and lexicographer, brought out the first vital international handbook on lexicography, Manual of Lexicography, which endures the standard text in the sphere.
Samuel Johnson said, "I'm not so lost in lexicography yet, because I don't forget that words are the daughters of the earth and things are the sons of heaven." "Samuel Johnson analyzed the descriptions of 114,000 quotations, the use of words and connotations. always had the right to add instructions. I was skeptical of its use. "(Piet Van van Sterkenburg, A Practical Guide to Lexicography. John Benjamins, 2003)
The lexical direction in the field of English has long been historical. The first edition of the Short Oxford Dictionary, H.V. and F.G. Fowler, based on James Murray's New English Dictionary of Historical Principles (later renamed the Oxford English Dictionary), written in 1911. It is also worth noting that the first supplement to the OED was published in 1933, and the second for publication in 1950 in four thick volumes under the editorship of Robert Burchfield. By the way, this includes additional swearing, speech, and so on.
Dictionaries come in many shapes and sizes, in many shapes and formats; and studying them reflects this diversity. Academic lexicographers often specialize and focus their research on some aspect of lexicography, which can be either a particular type of dictionary (e.g. student dictionaries, bilingual dictionaries, historical
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dictionaries, sign language dictionaries, slang dictionaries), or a specific aspect of the dictionary. compilation ( e.g. style definition, usage notes, pronunciation handling). "In 1988 the first edition of the OED was available on CD and the second edition in 1992." (Piet van Sterkenburg, "A Dictionary of the Dictionary: Definition and History." A Practical Guide to Lexicography, edited by Piet van Sterkenburg. John Benjamins, 2003)
As we mentioned above, a dictionary is considered as a list of words with their definitions, a list of symbols, or a list of words with comperable words in other languages. Many dictionaries also provide pronunciation information; grammar information; word formation, history or etymology; illustrations; user manual; and examples in phrases or sentences. That's why most dictionaries are called as a lexicographers. Dictionaries are most often found in the form of books, but more and more dictionaries are being created in the form of software that runs from an electronic PDA or general purpose computer. We prefer to use a dictionary while studying or working, which can provide us with a quick translation as quickly as possible. However, compiling a dictionary is a rather complicated process. There are several stages of dictionary compilation tasks:
- collection of material
- selection of records and their location
- customization of each entry
1) selection of lexical units for inclusion
2) arrangement of articles (alphabetically, by groups, by frequency)
3) record setting (structure and content)
4) selection and arrangement of values (historical, empirical / actual / frequency, logical order)
5) definition of meanings (encyclopedic, descriptive, synonymous, cross-referential)
6) illustrative examples (quotes, corpus, for example)
Specialized lexicographic dictionaries help their users much better. The Dictionary of Lexicography (Hartmann and James 1998) defines lexicography as: The professional activity and academic field associated with dictionaries and other reference books. It consists of two main sections: lexicographic practice, or the creation of dictionaries, and lexicographic theory, or vocabulary research. ... It continues with a more complete description of both sections, including a list of several sections of lexicography, for example. author's lexicography, bilingual lexicography, encyclopedic lexicography, specialized lexicography, thesaurus
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lexicography. With the aid of a diagram, he divides vocabulary research into four components, i.e. history, typology, criticism, and usage, while vocabulary building is divided into three components, i.e., field research, description, and presentation. However, there is a lack of notes on the user, content, structure and functions of the dictionaries, and in the dictionary, called on the cover a "professional reference", references to various theories of lexicography.
In the book Lexicography: Dictionary of Basic Terminology (Burkhanov, 1998), one can find an extensive interpretation of lexicography. The main issues in question are "the disciplinary status of lexicography, its relationship with other linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines, the scope of the lexicographic description, the methodology of lexicographic research, the typology of reference books created within the framework of lexicography, the methods of lexicographic presentation. ..." Various points of view on the position of lexicography are also given (indicating the relevant literature; they are not repeated here): "Lexicography is considered as a field of applied linguistics ..., a branch of computer science ..., a field of philological and historical research ..., a subject area, a theoretical aspect which belongs to the field of theoretical linguistics, while its practice belongs to the field of applied linguistics ... ". Burkhanov also refers to the fact that "lexicography is successfully developing its own theory." He also states that "the term 'lexicography' refers to the process, outcome, and theoretical evaluation of the creation of reference works that represent a wide range of heterogeneous knowledge structures..."
Burkhanov's description allows the experienced user to extract information comprehensively and provides a rough guide in terms of the degree to which information is conveyed in the dictionary. However, the important role of the user, and the really important notion of lexicography as a discipline in its own right, is not sufficiently advanced.
Dictionaries may either list values in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list values in order of popularity and most common use. Dictionaries also differ in their degree of encyclopedia, which provides a significant amount of background information, illustrations, etc., or degree of linguisticity, which concentrates on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations that demonstrate usage.
Any dictionary is designed to perform one or more functions. Dictionary features chosen by the dictionary creator(s) provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the choice of introductory words, the choice of information types, to the choice of a place for information (for example, in an article or in an appendix).
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There are two main types of functions. Communication-oriented features include text ingestion (comprehension), text production, text review, and translation. Knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used to obtain specific knowledge on a specific subject and to obtain general knowledge about something. An optimal dictionary is a dictionary that contains information that is directly related to the needs of users, related to one or more of these functions. It is important that information be presented in such a way that the cost of lexicographic information is kept to a minimum.
Most dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be general, containing articles on topics from a wide variety of fields; or they may specialize in a particular field such as art, biography, law, medicine, or philosophy. They may also be organized around a particular academic, cultural, ethnic, or national point of view. Linguistic dictionaries describe vocabulary units, their semantic structure, origin and use; words are usually given in alphabetical order. Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized dictionaries.Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics.This dictionary may standardised one-quantity allusion to linguistics.It contains extensive description from experts in phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics.Dictionary of phonetics and phonology.And this dictionary is divided into general and specialized dictionaries
General dictionaries contain monolingual and bilingual dictionaries.
A monolingual dictionary explains the meaning of a word in the language you are learning.A bilingual dictionary provides a translation or explanation using another language, a language you are familiar with, usually your own language.
Specialized dictionaries contain such kind of dictionaries like synonyms, antonyms, phrases, phrases, slang, neologisms; etymological, orthoepic, phraseological and other dictionaries.
Specialized dictionaries (also technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual issues related to specific subject areas. A specialized vocabulary may have a relatively broad scope, e.g. picture dictionary in the sense that it covers severaPhraseological dictionaries serve to retell ideoms, colloquial phrases as well as proverbs. They may be samples from the literature.
Etymological dictionaries discover contemporary words to mature forms of these word and shapes of those words in different languages.
Pronunciation dictionaries mostly accounts only pronunciation.
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Neologism dictionaries include such kind of words that are newly became visible. Most second language learners are aware of merits and satisfaction of a well organized dictionaries. Most learners are conscious about how beneficial a bilingual dictionary while translating such kind of specific words that they can be interpreted so easily. Contrastingly a well edequate monolingual dictionary is very beneficial. It is visible that a single word may have more than one meanil subject areas, such as science and technology (multi-field dictionary), or their scope may be narrower, since they cover one specific subject area, such as law (single-field dictionary). or even a specific subfield such as contract law (subfield dictionary).Specialized dictionaries may be maximizing dictionaries, that is, they attempt to provide a comprehensive coverage of terms in the respective subject area, or they may be minimizing dictionaries, that is, they attempt to cover only a limited number of relevant specialized vocabularies. In general, dictionaries with multiple fields tend to minimize, while dictionaries with one field and subfields tend to maximize.
The first way a dictionary can help is by listing the values in such a way that the most common or frequently occurring ones are first and the most common ones are last. The corresponding dictionary will also provide sample sentences for each of the various meanings; this can solve a lot of problems if you can see how the word is actually used in the sentence.
The example should be handy in order to recognise how the word suits with other words in the sample. For example, we can't use a verb unless we know it must be followed by a gerund, an infinitive, a sentence, or something like that.
It is clear that the English language is famous for its confusing spelling, and the dictionary will obviously come in handy here. The dictionary will tell us if this spelling is British or American. In addition, we can even solve some grammatical problems, such as whether a verb has an incorrect past tense or an adjective has an incorrect comparative form.
CONCLUSION
The phonetic alphabet is used in dictionaries to tell us about the pronunciation of a particular word, and a special indication will help us put the stress in the right place.
Summing up, it is difficult to imagine our study or work without lexicography, because any schoolchild, student and even an experienced teacher, whose activities are closely related to learning or teaching a language, constantly needs a good dictionary that can always help in any situation. time. The main issue is that lexicography should be introduced and developed by lexicographers so that they
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compile perfect and convenient dictionaries for people of all ages and for all branches of science.
REFERENCES
1. Atkins, B. T. Sue, and Michael Rundell. 2008. The Oxford guide to practical lexicography. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
2. Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp. 2003. Two Opposing Theories: On H.E. Wiegand's Recent Discovery of Lexicographic Functions. Hermes, Journal of Linguistics 31: 171-196.
3. Howard Jackson Lexicography: an Introduction, Routledge, 2002.
4. Piet Van van Sterkenburg, A Practical Guide to Lexicography. John Benjamins,
5. Zgusta, Ladislav. 2010. Manual of lexicography. Janua Linguarum Series Maior 39. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
6. Henning Bergenholtz, What is Lexicograpy. 2012
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