CC BY
0THE PEACEFUL RESOLUTION OF THE NORTHWEST FRONTIER CONFLICTS
DURING THE HAN DYNASTY
Aimei Zhang
PhD student of the National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkant Associate professor of the Jining Normal University, China
52018175@qq.com
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11482556 ABSTRACT
During the Han Dynasty, a combination of military defense and peaceful communication was employed to maintain stability and security in the Northwest frontier. Innovative approaches to peaceful communication included sending diplomatic envoys, engaging in political marriages, facilitating mutual trade, and establishing the Silk Road. These measures not only alleviated frontier crises but also contributed to the development of the border regions to some extent, providing valuable historical lessons for future generations.
Key Words: Han Dynasty; Frontier; Diplomatic Envoys; Political Marriage; Mutual Trade; Silk Road
МИРНОЕ РАЗРЕШЕНИЕ СЕВЕРО-ЗАПАДНЫХ ПРИГРАНИЧНЫХ КОНФЛИКТОВ ВО ВРЕМЯ ДИНАСТИИ ХАНЬ
Аймэй Чжан
Аспирант Национального университета Узбекистана, Ташкант Доцент Цзиньского нормального университета, Китай
52018175@qq.com
АННОТАЦИЯ
Во времена династии Хань сочетание военной обороны и мирного общения использовалось для поддержания стабильности и безопасности на северо-западной границе. Инновационные подходы к мирному общению включали отправку дипломатических посланников, заключение политических браков, содействие взаимной торговле и создание Шелкового пути. Эти меры не только смягчили пограничные кризисы, но и в некоторой степени способствовали развитию приграничных регионов, предоставив ценные исторические уроки будущим поколениям.
Ключевые слова: династия Хань; Граница; Дипломатические посланники; Политический брак; Взаимная торговля; Шелковый путь
HAN SULOLASI DAVRIDAGI SHIMOLIY G'ARB CHGARALARINI TINCHIY
YO'L YO'LDA HAL QILISHI.
Aimei Chjan
O'zbekiston Milliy universiteti, Toshkent shahar doktoranti Jining Normal Universiteti dotsenti, Xitoy
52018175@qq.com
ANNOTATSIYA
Xan sulolasi davrida shimoli-g'arbiy chegarada barqarorlik va xavfsizlikni saqlash uchun harbiy mudofaa va tinch aloqa kombinatsiyasidan foydalanilgan. Tinch muloqotga innovatsion
yondashuvlar qatoriga diplomatik elchilar yuborish, siyosiy nikohlar tuzish, o'zaro savdoni osonlashtirish va Ipak yo'lini o'rnatish kiradi. Bu chora-tadbirlar nafaqat chegara inqirozlarini yumshatibgina qolmay, balki chegaradosh hududlarning rivojlanishiga ham ma'lum darajada hissa qo'shdi, kelajak avlodlar uchun qimmatli tarixiy saboqlar berdi.
Kalit so'zlar: Xan sulolasi; chegara; Diplomatik elchilar; Siyosiy nikoh; O'zaro savdo; Ipak
yo'li
Introduction: During the Han Dynasty, there were numerous threats originating from the frontier, making the resolution of these conflicts a crucial challenge for the dynasty. Among the methods employed to handle frontier crises, the innovative and epoch-making feature of peaceful communication emerged as a valuable asset for future generations to learn from. Diplomatic envoys played a significant role in this era, with figures like Zhang Qian representing a powerful arm of Han diplomacy, facilitating communication, negotiation, and exploration. The dynamics of political marriages during the Han Dynasty underwent significant transformations, evolving from a position of submission to a proactive and strategically motivated political measure.Economic and cultural communication through mutual trade and the Silk Road played vital roles in the Han Dynasty. These peaceful approaches not only alleviated frontier crises, reducing military pressure and fiscal burdens but also shone brightly in maintaining stability and fostering development in the border regions. The peace initiatives of the Han Dynasty cast a unique radiance in safeguarding the stability and growth of the frontier.
Research Methodology: This paper employs the method of historical literature review to explore the peaceful methods utilized by the Han Dynasty in resolving frontier conflicts. The study aims to investigate the rationale and implementation of these methods during that historical period.
Analysis and results.
Diplomatic Envoys and Communication: The vast expanse of the Han Dynasty's territory brought it into contact with numerous neighboring countries and ethnic groups. In managing these diplomatic relations, the envoys dispatched by the Han Dynasty played a crucial role.
In the early Western Han period, a communication strategy involving the dispatch of envoys was employed in dealing with relations with the Xiongnu. Recorded in the "Han Shu," after the siege of Baideng, recognizing the formidable power of the Xiongnu, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, sent Liu Jing to meet with the Chanyu (the supreme ruler of the Xiongnu) for communication and negotiation[1]. During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu frequently raided and pillaged the Han border, imposing significant pressure on the Han Dynasty. However, as the Han Dynasty's national strength was insufficient to confront the Xiongnu directly, Emperor Wen of Han adopted a strategy of sending envoys: "He dispatched envoys, exchanging greetings and establishing relations along the way, conveying my intentions to the Chanyu"[2].
After Emperor Wu of Han, the dispatch of envoys during the Han Dynasty reached a new level. From 138 BC to 119 BC, Zhang Qian undertook two diplomatic missions to the Western Regions, establishing contact with the Daxia (Bactria), communicating with the various countries in the Western Regions. Particularly during his second mission, Zhang Qian, after reaching the Wusun, "sent deputy envoys to visit Dawan, Kangju, Yuezhi, and Daxia." The outcome of this communication was that the various countries sent envoys along with Han envoys back to the Western Han, creating conditions for the Western Regions to understand the Western Han and its dynasty, thus establishing diplomatic relations with the Han Dynasty. Wusun, impressed by the vastness of the Han territory, sent envoys with thanks and, having witnessed the breadth of the
Han, even sent representatives to Han. Subsequently, "Wusun sent envoys to see the vastness of Han. They returned and reported to their country, and their country also respected Han. Besides, Dawan, Yuezhi, and other related states all dealt with Han"[3].
After Zhang Qian, the diplomatic measures of the Han Dynasty gradually flourished. According to the records in "Biography of Zhang Qian" in the "Han Shu," Western Han envoys "exchanged greetings along the way, with several hundred seniors and over a hundred juniors when Zhang Qian was the envoy." Moreover, a regular pattern emerged. "Han dispatched envoys frequently, with more than ten missions in a year, and some with only five or six teams. For distant missions, it took eight or nine years, while for closer destinations, they returned within several years."
Material Bribes: Generous gift-giving was an early and long-lasting strategy in the frontier governance policy of the Han Dynasty. By presenting valuable gifts such as gold, silk, and precious jade to the frontier ethnic groups, the dynasty aimed to express goodwill and friendship. This approach sought to establish mutual trust through economic means, reducing the occurrence of frontier conflicts. It involved meeting the needs of the other party through economic concessions, thereby serving as a means to either ease tensions or strengthen connections. Material bribes could be proactive or reactive. In the early years of the Han Dynasty, the adoption of a generous gift-giving policy was reactive.
In the early years of the Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu continuously raided the borders of the Han Empire, causing concern for Emperor Gaozu. While agreeing to engage in marital ties, there were also regular offerings to the Xiongnu, including textiles, wine, and various food items. This practice of bribery is evident in the historical record: "Each year, they sent textiles and wines to the Xiongnu, along with various food items"[4]. To prevent harm to the border regions, Emperor Wen of Han implemented a policy of offering substantial bribes to the Xiongnu. During the reign of Emperor Jing, an agreement was made with the Xiongnu, involving peace treaties, trade, and gifts, which proved effective in maintaining stability: "Emperor Jing made peace with the Xiongnu, engaged in border trade, and sent gifts to the Xiongnu according to the established agreements. The result was that, by the end of Emperor Jing's reign, there were only minor incursions, and there were no major threats along the border"[5] .
Although the early Han Dynasty actively provided material bribes to the Xiongnu, this initiative was not voluntary but rather a compromise and submission due to the Han Dynasty's inferior strength compared to its adversaries.
After Emperor Wu of Han, the meaning of "generous gift-giving" underwent some changes. The Han Dynasty adopted a proactive approach, using economic means to attract and communicate, seeking cooperation. In the fourth year of Yuanshou (119 BC), the Xiongnu Hunxie King surrendered to Western Han, leaving the region around the Hexi Corridor without Xiongnu presence, allowing for a smooth route to the Western Regions. Zhang Qian suggested to Emperor Wu that by "generously offering gifts to the Wusun and inviting them to return to their former land, Han could send a princess as a wife, establishing a brotherly relationship," effectively severing the right arm of the Xiongnu. To the west of Wusun, "all those related to Daxia could be attracted to serve as external ministers." Although this specific attempt to "generously offer gifts" to the Wusun did not achieve the intended goal, it paved the way for communication between Western Han and the various countries of the Western Regions.
Following this, Western Han's policy of "generous gift-giving" to the Western Regions began. Despite not achieving the expected results with the Wusun, after Zhang Qian's visit to the Wusun, "he sent deputy envoys to visit Dawan, Kangju, Yuezhi, and Daxia, and envoys from those countries accompanied him back to Western Han. The Wusun sent dozens of envoys with several dozen horses to express gratitude and to observe Han. The deputy envoys from those countries also came along. These events created conditions for the Western Regions to understand Western Han and its dynasty. Subsequently, the envoys from the Wusun reported the vastness of Han to their country, and their country also respected Han... Those around Daxia and Yuezhi also dealt with Han"[6]. This reflected the initial success of the Western Han Dynasty's policy of "generous gift-giving" as part of its offensive strategy.
Political Marriages: Interethnic marriages, known as "heqin" or political marriages, were a common strategy employed by the Han Dynasty in dealing with frontier and ethnic affairs. The policy of political marriages in the Han Dynasty began in the early Western Han and continued into the Eastern Han. The main targets of the political marriage policy in the northwest during the Han Dynasty were the Xiongnu and the Western Regions. In the interactions with the Xiongnu, the "heqin" policy played a role in maintaining border stability, facilitating economic and cultural exchanges, and ultimately contributing to the later assimilation of ethnic groups. In the Western Regions, it facilitated the opening and development of the overland Silk Road. The Han Dynasty's political marriages can be categorized as proactive or reactive. When the Han Dynasty was weak, political marriages were often used as a passive measure to alleviate border pressure, engaging in marriages with foreign or frontier ethnic groups. Conversely, when the Han Dynasty was strong, political marriages were often initiated when foreign countries or frontier ethnic groups requested them.
In the early years of the Han Dynasty, records in the "Han Shu" recount continuous raids by the Xiongnu on the Han border. Faced with this challenge, Emperor Gaozu sought a method to maintain peaceful relations. After the lifting of the siege at Baideng, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang conceived the idea of using political marriage (heqin) as a means to achieve peace with the Xiongnu. As the Han Dynasty's strength was insufficient to confront the Xiongnu directly, Emperor Wen of Han "dispatched an envoy to establish a brotherly relationship with the Xiongnu, uniting all under heaven in peace. Thus, the peace was settled, commencing this year"[7]. Emperor Wen considered this strategy as a means to "secure the state and benefit the myriad people," willingly overlooking minor grievances for the greater good[8]. The practice of political marriages in the early years of the Han Dynasty was continuous, with some instances occurring at very short intervals. It is worth noting that the same Chanyu of the Xiongnu would consecutively marry multiple Han princesses. For example, Chanyu Modu married two Han princesses, and Chanyu Junchen married six Han princesses. From Emperor Gaozu to Empress Lu, Emperor Hui, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing, in order to ensure the stability of people's lives, they had to actively seek or promise political marriages for the sake of peace. After the establishment of political marriages, a structured system of annual tributes to the Xiongnu, including textiles, silk, wine, and food, was instituted.
The transformation in the nature of diplomatic marriages (heqin) during the Han Dynasty can be traced back to the marriage of Huhanye Chanyu with the Western Han Princess Zhaojun. Huhanye found himself at a disadvantage in the conflict with Zhizhi Chanyu. "In the battle with Zhizhi Chanyu, Huhanye was killed, and his forces were combined with Zhizhi Chanyu's.
Subsequently, Zhizhi Chanyu advanced to attack Huhanye, routed his forces, and Huhanye fled; Zhizhi established his court as the Chanyu of the Northern Xiongnu"[9]. In this situation, Huhanye Chanyu led the Southern Xiongnu to submit to the Han Dynasty, resulting in the division of the Xiongnu into northern and southern factions. Huhanye Chanyu then requested a diplomatic marriage with the Han Dynasty. At this point, the Han Dynasty was genuinely willing to engage in a diplomatic marriage with Huhanye Chanyu, and this form of diplomatic marriage no longer carried the humiliation and passivity observed in previous instances. "The Chanyu himself expressed his desire to increase the Han lineage through affinity, and Emperor Yuan bestowed upon him the well-bred lady and son of a noble family, Wang Qiang, with the epithet Zhaojun. The Chanyu was delighted." After affiliating with the Han Dynasty, Huhanye Chanyu was willing to pay the price for the diplomatic marriage: "He expressed his willingness to guard the passes west of the Guan region up to Dunhuang endlessly; he requested the withdrawal of border guards, garrisoned officials, and troops, for the rest and relief of the Emperor and the people"[10]. In essence, he was willing to defend the northwest borderlands for the Han Dynasty.
The diplomatic marriage (heqin) between the Han Dynasty and the Wusun began in the sixth year of Emperor Wu's Yuanfeng era. "In the middle of the Yuanfeng era, Princess Xijun, the daughter of King Jian of Jiangdu, was sent to Wusun as a princess and married there. She was bestowed with carriages, attire, and numerous gifts, and her entourage included officials, eunuchs, and attendants numbering in the hundreds"[11]. Later on, when Princess Kunmo (Xijun) grew old, she desired to have her grandson Cenzou marry the princess. However, the princess refused and submitted a memorial, and the emperor responded, saying, "Follow their customs; we desire to join forces with Wusun to eliminate the nomads." Cenzou then married the princess. After Kunmo's death, Cenzou succeeded him. (Cenzou is also known as Junsu, Chanyu of the Wusun)"[12]. This passage further clarifies the political nature of diplomatic marriages involving princesses. After the death of Princess Xijun, Emperor Wu, in order to strengthen the diplomatic relationship with the Wusun, "sent Liu Wu, the grandson of King Chu, as Princess Jieyou and married her to Cenzou"[13]. After the death of Cenzou, his son Wengui succeeded him. Wengui was a child of one of Cenzou's other wives, and he had no blood relation with Jieyou. "After Wengui ascended to the throne as Fei Wang, he again married Princess Jieyou of Chu." Princess Jieyou represented the Han Dynasty in Wusun and played a crucial role in helping the Wusun become stronger, resist the Xiongnu, and actively spread Central Plains culture in the Western Regions through intermarriage, diplomatic missions, rewards, and other means. She became one of the most influential princesses of the Han Dynasty, contributing to the enhancement of Han prestige in the Western Regions and supporting the smooth operation of the Silk Road.
Economic and cultural exchanges between the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu played a crucial role in alleviating tensions and conflicts along the northern frontier. Since the siege of Emperor Gaozu by the Xiongnu at Pingcheng, and for the next 150 years until Emperor Xuandi welcomed Hu Hanxie, the Xiongnu consistently raided the border regions. During the reign of Emperor Wen, the Xiongnu's incursions were particularly severe, with annual invasions resulting in extensive loss of life and property[14]. Under the rule of Emperor Wu, the Xiongnu launched twenty large-scale invasions, resulting in the death and plunder of up to a hundred thousand people. According to the "Biography of the Xiongnu" in the "Han Shu," the Xiongnu, being a nomadic people, constantly moved in search of water and pasture, engaging primarily in animal husbandry. Located in the northern borderlands with a harsh climate and relatively poor resources, the Xiongnu,
economically dependent on agriculture-focused Han China, practiced a lifestyle that alternated between hunting and cultivating fields[15]. The Xiongnu's nomadic nature and reliance on agriculture from settled regions like the Han Dynasty led them to engage in warfare and raids to acquire wealth. Their main goals were to acquire people as slaves and to obtain goods such as silk, fabrics, and foodstuffs through warfare and diplomatic marriages. In essence, the Xiongnu's actions, whether through war or diplomatic means, were driven by their economic vulnerability and the need for agricultural products to supplement their nomadic economy. In response, the most effective solution was to provide them with a peaceful channel for obtaining agricultural products, achieved through mutual trade (also known as Hu Market) and the unimpeded flow of the Silk Road.
The establishment of Hu Market or tribute trade became a strategic approach employed by the Han Dynasty government to restrain and influence nomadic tribes. As stated in the "Han Shu," Volume 96, "Biography of the Xiongnu," it was said, "It can be said that through generous profits, one can reach their intentions. Therefore, we offer them generous profits to subdue their intentions." Similarly, in the "Shi Ji," it is mentioned, "Now, with the emperor's ascension, clear treaties and constraints, generous treatment, open trade, and abundant provision, the Xiongnu, from the Chanyu downward, all became friendly with the Han, with frequent exchanges beneath the Great Wall." It is noted that the Xiongnu were greedy and enjoyed open trade, showing an appetite for Han riches, and the Han, in turn, continued open trade without cessation to influence them. The "Later Han Book" also records, "At the time, the Northern Xiongnu were still formidable, frequently raiding the border, causing concern to the court. As the Northern Chanyu desired mutual trade, he sent envoys seeking peace and kinship. The emperor hoped for increased communication, and they ceased their plundering. Thus, it was granted"[16]. The impact of mutual trade on nomadic tribes is further evidenced by the Xiongnu Chanyu's preference for silk fabrics from the Central Plains. During the early reign of Emperor Wu, trade with the Xiongnu was established, providing them with ample provisions. Apart from the Xiongnu, mutual trade also existed between the Han government and the Xianbei in the northeast and the Nanyue in the south. Mutual trade not only fulfilled the economic needs of both parties but, more importantly, facilitated social stability and cultural exchange through economic interactions.
The Silk Road, serving as a vital trade route from the Central Plains to the northwestern frontier and extending further to Central Asia and even Europe, played a crucial role. In the " Shi Ji - An Account of the Great Yuezhi," it is documented that Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, guided by insights gained through the Book of Changes (Yijing), foresaw, "Divine horses will come from the northwest"[17]. Eager to acquire the "heavenly horses," Emperor Wu, as communication commenced with the "countries to the northwest," dispatched envoys who returned with alfalfa, the favored food of the horses. The purple alfalfa flowers adorned the Han palaces and gardens. The introduction of superior horse breeds significantly contributed to the economic and military strength of the Han Dynasty. In the sixth year of the Yuan Ding era of the Western Han Dynasty (111 BCE), with the establishment of Zhangye Commandery and the implementation of border settlement policies, advanced production experiences and technologies from the Central Plains were also transmitted to the Western Regions.
During this period, Zhangye had already been cultivating the five grains, including wheat, millet, and beans. Simultaneously, crops such as fava beans, cucumbers, sesame, walnuts, grapes, and alfalfa, introduced from the Western Regions, took root and flourished in the fertile land of
Zhangye. Serving as one of the dissemination centers for Han Buddhist culture in the Hexi region, Zhangye became a convergence point where Buddhist culture blended and exhibited a transitional development. Along the ancient Silk Road within its borders, numerous ancient temples and monasteries, with their enduring presence, showcased the prosperity that Buddhist culture once enjoyed. With records documenting nearly 80 temples, these ancient sites were praised by ancient observers as "ancient temples spreading everywhere like woven mats." Through such communication and exchange, technologies and cultures were disseminated, fostering the economic and social development of the northwestern frontier. This facilitated the flow of goods and allowed nomadic tribes to supplement their pastoral economies through peaceful means, mitigating conflicts.
Discussion.
In ancient China, envoys from the Han Dynasty played a crucial role. They were officials representing the emperor or the government on diplomatic missions, primarily responsible for handling diplomatic affairs with other countries. The primary task of the Han Dynasty envoys was to fulfill diplomatic missions, representing the Han Dynasty in establishing or maintaining diplomatic relations with other nations. They used diplomatic means to resolve border disputes, reach treaties, and form alliances. Envoys assumed the responsibility of communication and negotiation, aiming to promote peace and friendly relations between nations. During their missions abroad, envoys were tasked with gathering information about other countries' politics, economy, culture, and more. This information was crucial for formulating the Han Dynasty's foreign policies and responding to international situations. Additionally, envoys engaged in cultural exchanges, promoting Han Dynasty culture while learning about the cultures of other countries. This cultural exchange facilitated mutual understanding and deepened friendly relations between nations. Apart from diplomatic tasks, envoys might also be involved in trade negotiations, fostering commercial exchanges. By advancing bilateral trade relations, envoys achieved the diplomatic goal of promoting economic development and enhancing the prosperity of the nation. At times, envoys accompanied foreign envoys back to their home countries, facilitating broader personnel exchanges. This contributed to establishing closer international relations, fostering mutual trust, and deepening understanding of each other's cultures.
The Han Dynasty's peace treaties and alliances with the Xiongnu gradually evolved beyond mere emergency measures to address border crises, becoming a widely adopted and generalized approach to resolving frontier issues. Initially proposed by Liu Jing, the concept of "heqin" (harmonious kinship) went beyond simply marrying princesses to Xiongnu chieftains. The primary objective was to facilitate mutual envoy exchanges, as articulated by the idea of "dispatching eloquent envoys with ceremonial courtesies." The core idea behind this proposal was to effect a transformation in Xiongnu "culture" by sending envoys with eloquence and proper etiquette. It aimed to alter Xiongnu's way of life by "inquiring about and offering what is abundant in Han during each season," ensuring that the offspring of the princess would succeed as a future chieftain and ultimately achieve the assimilation of the Xiongnu. In essence, Liu Jing's proposal, originating during a time when the Western Han Dynasty faced challenges in confronting the powerful Xiongnu, carried a distinct offensive nature. These initial concepts were continually validated and implemented through a series of uninterrupted peace treaties, eventually becoming a conventional method for later rulers in managing frontier regions.
Contradictions always need resolution, people need livelihoods, and societies require development. Resolving conflicts and contradictions through peaceful means, minimizing the cost, is the preferred way for humanity to advance its own development. Since the Han Dynasty, the main ethnic groups engaged in trade with the Central Plains in the northwest region have included the Xiongnu, Turks, Tibetans, Mongols (including the Western Mongols, such as the Oirats, and the Northern Mongols), Tuyuhun, Western Xia, Kazakhs, and other ethnicities. This traditional and stable pattern reflects not only a reliance or mutual benefit but also a cohesive trend and historical choice in economic and cultural exchanges between the Han ethnic group and various northwestern ethnicities. The northwest ethnic regions, relying on the Silk Road trade network and the commodity exchange mechanisms of feudal society, engaged in economic complementarity and mutual benefit with the agricultural civilization society in the Central Plains.
Conclusion.
The peaceful resolution of border conflicts adopted by the Han Dynasty was a response to the characteristics of the time, addressing the contemporary challenges with actions that were not merely ad hoc measures but had a certain level of design and planning. While sending envoys was a practice from ancient times, the scale and role of Han Dynasty envoys surpassed any previous dynasties. The strategies of diplomacy through marriage alliances (heqin) and lavish gifts played a role in the Han Dynasty's approach to stabilizing the borders, contributing to the establishment of alliances. The practices of mutual trade and the Silk Road, from an economic perspective, met the production and living needs of the people, addressing the root causes of crises and gradually forming an effective model that would be passed down through the ages.
References.
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