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10ORIGINS OF SCIENTIFIC DIPLOMACY: INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ACADEMIES, PUGWASH AND DARTMOUTH CONFERENCES
Abstract
The article analyzes the origins of scientific diplomacy. The authors believe that it dates back to 1899, when the International Association of Academies (IAA) was created. The authors also refute the thesis that the IAA did not operate in 1913. To confirm their conclusions, the authors publish archival materials about the activities of the IAA in 1913, about its Congress in St. Petersburg (Russia), about the work of the American astronomer D.E. Hale (which contradicts the opinion of the authors of some publications about the non-participation of the American Academy in the activities of the IAA). The authors of the article cite the memoirs of Russian scientists V.I. Vernadsky and A.S. Famintsyn, as well as the French mathematician G. Darboux considering the IAA, who took an active part in the work of this organization. At the same time, the authors managed to identify the names of some scientists from Germany, Austria, Great Britain, France, the USA and Russia, who were involved in the creation and activities of the IAA. The article also considers such systematic forums of the 20th century as the Pugwash and Dartmouth conferences. It were the activities of the considered international scientific organizations and conferences that formed the initial forms of scientific diplomacy, the development of which in the 21st century can contribute to the resolution of both scientific and political contradictions. The authors point, the issue calls for further research to publish archival and other materials on the activities of the IAA, the Pugwash and Dartmouth conferences, for the development of the modern theory of science diplomacy and the formation of the science diplomacy history. Key words: science diplomacy, International Association of Academies, Pugwash Conferences, Dartmouth Conferences.
Authors
Gorokhov Andrei
editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Russian Political Science, PhD in Political Sciences (Russia)
Vitorovich Zoran
editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Global Processes, PhD (Switzerland)
Eleeva (Makoeva) Dzerassa
lecturer at the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia (Russia)
It would seem a simple question —
from what year can we talk about scientific diplomacy? Yes, "scientific diplomacy" is a modern concept, but, in our opinion, the practice of scientific diplomacy begins with the institutionalization of systemic interaction between scientific organizations at the international level. This level of relationship between scientific organizations dates back to the establishment in 1899 of the International Association of Academies (IAA). We will write about the establishment of this organization further, as well as publish several documents translated from French (since this was the language of communication of the IAA) into English, related to the activities of the Association.
By publishing historical documents, we want to refute several inaccurate statements that take place in scientific articles and on electronic resources. Of the erroneous theses, we identified the following statements: 1) the activities of the IAA ended in 1912; 2) The United States did not take part in the establishment and activities of the IAA. In fact, in 1913 in St. Petersburg (at that time the capital of Russia) the fifth Congress of the organization was held, and US representatives actively participated in the work of the IAA, which is confirmed by archival documents of the American astronomer George Ellery Hale (1868-1938), one of the founders of the California Institute of Technology, a foreign corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as documents from the Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire.
Foundation of the IAA: initiators, main participants
At present, there are very few articles and books in the scientific literature that would describe and study the process of creation and activities of the IAA. As a result, different sources and different countries write different data on the
creation of this organization. Let's give some examples.
The website of the Union of the German Academies of Sciences and Humanities (German: Union der deutschen Akademien der Wissenschaften) states that "at the initiative of the Cartel1, under the leadership of the Prussian Academy, the "International Association of Academies" was created in 1899. The IAA lasted until the outbreak of the First World War and was never officially disbanded. It brought together four German academies in Berlin, Göttingen, Leipzig and Munich, the Vienna Academy and 19 other academies, mostly from Europe. These 24 academies successfully worked in the 31st scientific section in two directions: natural sciences and humanities" [18].
At the same time, the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863— 1945), who took an active part in the IAA, informs the organization was created due to the initiative of the Royal Society of London. In his article, Vernadsky wrote: "The International Association of Academies <...> was formed in 1899 due to the initiative of the Royal Society of London. The Royal Society of London (one of the oldest and most influential academies), recently celebrating its 250th anniversary, raised the issue of organizing an International Association of Academies in 1898. A similar opinion can be found in the British Medical Journal: «The final steps for the foundation of an International Association of Academies were taken at a meeting held at Wiesbaden on October 1th. on the proposal of the Royal Society of London it was determined that the first
1 «Cartel» — "Association of scientific corporations", founded in Leipzig in 1893 with the aim of implementing joint research projects. Initially, the Cartel included the academies in Göttingen, Leipzig and Munich, as well as the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. Although the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin participated in the preparation of this association, it did not join it until 1906. (link: Seit mehr als 125 Jahren arbeiten die Wissenschaftsakademien bereits zusammen. — URL: https://www. akademienunion.de/akademienunion/au/kleine-geschichte-der-akademienunion).
general meeting should be held in Paris in 1900» [12. — Р. 1212].
Given the various information about the initiators of the creation of the IAA, we considered it necessary to refer directly to the memories of those who took part in the creation of the IAA — scientists of the late 19th — early 20th centuries. And we found such scientists, as well as some of their publications, which reveal the history of the formation and development of the IAA.
Based on the sources of the archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences [5], we can name a number of scientists who were involved in the creation and development of the IAA, for example, Andrei Sergeevich Famintsyn1 (1835-1918) and Karl Genrik-hovich Zaleman2 (1849-1916), members of the IAA bureau from Russia. The St. Petersburg Bureau of the IAA included Oscar Andreevich Backlund3 (1846-1916),
1 Andrei Sergeevich Famintsyn is one of the outstanding biologists of Russia, the founder of Russian plant physiology, the founder of the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the organizer of the first university department of plant physiology and the author of the first domestic textbook on this subject, ordinary professor at St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (see: Кузнецов В.В., Дмитриев Г.А. Неоправданно забытое имя. К 175-летию со Дня рождения Академика А.С. Фаминцына // Вестник Российской академии наук. — Т. 80. — № 8. — 2010. — C. 726-733 [Kuznetsov V.V., Dmitriev G.A. Unjustifiably forgotten name. On the 175th anniversary of the birth of Academician A.S. Famintsyn // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences. — T. 80. — No. 8. — 2010. — Pp. 726-733]).
2 Karl Genrikhovich Zaleman — Iranian philologist from Russia, full member of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, director of the Asian Museum of the Academy of Sciences (1890-1916). Under K.G. Zaleman Museum has become the world's largest repository of monuments of the written culture of the peoples of the East. His main scientific works are devoted to Iranian philology, the Ossetian language, the languages of the Pamirs.
3 Oskar Andreevich Backlund — Russian and Swedish astronomer, full member of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, director of the Nikolaev Main Astronomical Observatory in Pulkovo (1895-1916). Under Backlund, the southern branches of the Pulkovo Observatory were created: in Odessa (1898), Simeiz and Nikolaev (1908-1912).
Boris Borisovich Golitsyn4 (1862-1916), K.G. Zaleman, Alexander Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky5 (1863-1919), Pyotr Vasilyevich Nikitin6 (1849-1916).
Also, going by the archive documents, French mathematician, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences Jean Gaston Darboux (1842-1917), French mathematician, philosopher and linguist Louis Coutu-rat (1868-1914) and English physiologist Michael Foster (1836- 1907) were active within IAA.
Of course, these are just a few of the hundreds of scientists from around the world who were involved in the creation and development of the IAA.
As for memoirs, at the moment we have found several sources that date back to the first years of the 20th century. The memoirs of the Russian biologist A.S. Famintsyn [9; 10]. Mathematician Gaston Darboux [17] wrote a review article in French about the creation of the IAA; an article by the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky [2] and archival documents of the American astronomer George Ellery Hale [11]. Memoirs of A.S. Famintsyna, G. Darboux, D.E. Hale were not republished nor translated into different languages either in the 20th or at the beginning of the 21st century, which certainly led to an
4 Boris Borisovich Golitsyn — Russian physicist and geophysicist, one of the founders of seismology, academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1908).
5 Alexander Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky — historian, one of the founders of the methodology of historical science in Russia, full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, was the first chairman of the Russian Sociological Society named after M.M. Kovalevsky, the initiator of the creation of the Institute of Social Sciences in Petrograd (1918), led a seminar on the diplomacy of private acts, the founder of a new direction in Russian diplomacy. Created a scientific school in the field of source studies. From 1917 he was the chairman of the Union of Russian Archival Workers, he was a supporter of a large-scale reform of the archival business.
6 Petr Vasilievich Nikitin — philologist, archaeologist, researcher of ancient Greek and Byzantine literature, rector of the Imperial St. Petersburg University (1890-1897), academician, vice president of the Academy of Sciences (1900-1916).
information gap about the creation and activities of the IAA. It is extremely necessary to return sources about the activities of the IAA to scientific circulation, as the modern concept of scientific diplomacy cannot be formulated and theoretically substantiated without taking into account the historical experience of the creation and endeavor of the IAA. It is hard to overestimate the importance of the IAA, since it is the first scientific organization that has embodied scientific diplomacy into real practice.
We believe that all of the above sources should be republished. In this article, we will quote several fragments from the memoirs of scientists, as well as publish some archival documents. In the future, beyond the scope of this article, we will try to publish a number of texts and documents on the activities of the IAA, this will be our small contribution to the development of scientific diplomacy, which has a centuries-old history, and this historical experience should be known to modern researchers and practitioners of scientific diplomacy.
From the memoirs of A.S. Famintsyn
As for the initiators of the creation of the IAA, A.S. Famintsyn writes quite clearly — these are, «besides the academies (Berlin, Vienna and Munich), three learned societies: the Royal Society of Sciences in Gottingen, the Royal Society of Sciences in Leipzig and the Royal Society of London» [9. — p. 158]. The first proposal of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences to take part in the creation of the IAA was received in 1898 by the President of the Royal Society of London, the creator of surgical antiseptics, Sir Joseph Lister (1827-1912), and in 1899 by the indispensable secretary of the Berlin Academy of Sciences Hermann Diels (1848 -1922) notified the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences that «in accordance with the decision of the Congress of the German Academies in
Munich and in agreement with the Royal Society in London, he invites, on behalf of the Berlin Academy, the Imperial Academy of Sciences to take part in the conference scheduled in Wiesbaden for October 9 and 10 (new style) and with the aim of founding the International Association of Academies» [9. — p. 159].
As for the purpose of the organization of the IAA, according to A.S. Famintsyn, is as follows: «to promote by all means the implementation of scientific enterprises, beyond the strength of not only one person, but also a separate nation. Therefore, the Association considers its main task to be the implementation of the widest possible and easy communication, both between individual scientists and scientific societies of all countries of the globe, with the aim of working together according to a strictly thought-out and developed plan in advance» [9. — p. 168]. In our opinion, such a goal and task of the IAA completely coincide with the modern goal of science diplomacy, which once again confirms the value of the experience of the creation and activities of the IAA for modern theorists and practitioners of science diplomacy.
It should be noted that the assessment of the IAA by A.S. Famintsyn coincided with the assessments of his other contemporaries, for example, a few days after the meeting of representatives of the Academies in Wiesbaden, a short article about the IAA was published in the journal Nature, predicting good prospects for such an international scientific organization: «Association of Academies will be a more flexible instrument for good than are international organizations appointed for specific purposes, and composed either of persons named by the Governments of the countries represented, the associated Academies to discuss questions connected with any branch of science which might in their opinion call for international cooperation, and if they decided that such action was desirable, to take steps to call the attention of the scientific world or of
the various Governments to the necessity For united action... It is obvious that an Institution Founded on these lines may become of the very first importance, and may play the part of an international parliament of science» [14].
Gaston Darboux on IAA
G. Darboux in his article described the process of creating the IAA, and noted the ideological inspirer of the IAA establishment, namely the German philosopher and scientist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), who once expressed the idea of "creating an association of the leading academies of the whole world" [17. — P 196]. And this idea was picked up at the end of the 19th century, according to G. Darboux, by the German historian Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831-1914) and Hermann Diels mentioned above.
This version is generally confirmed by a modern researcher, a representative of the German Historical Institute in London, Peter Alter. At the same time, P. Alter in his article "The Royal Society and the International Association of Academies 1897-1919"1 refers to the memoirs of the English physicist Arthur Schuster (1851-1934), who claims that the mathematician Felix Klein (1849-1925) in 1897 was the first to express the idea of creating an association between scientific academies around the world. However, as the IAA idea creator, A. Schuster, as well as G. Diels, refers to the German historian T. Mommsen, who then became a Nobel Prize winner in literature in 1902. Researchers from the Austrian Academy of Sciences Johannes Mattes and Doris Corradini write about T. Mommsen's contribution to the promotion of the idea of creating the IAA2.
1 See: Alter P. The Royal Society and the International Association of Academies 1897-1919 // Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Mar., 1980), pp. 241-264.
2 See: Corradini D.A., Mattes J. Die Akademie und die Internationalisierung der wissenschaftlichen Zusammenarbeit. Kartell
Austrian researchers also note the role of the Austrian geologist E. Suess in the IAA creation.
In the work of Y. Matthes and D. Corradini there is a photo published from the IAA conference, which took place in Wiesbaden. We are posting this photo as there are scientists in it, largely due to whom the IAA was created.
As for the creation of the IAA, G. Darboux writes that «in 1898, several scientists from different countries expressed the opinion in private conversations that circumstances had become favorable for a return to the plan of founding the International Association of Academies» [17. — P. 197]. And in 1898, the issue of the IAA was included on the agenda of the "Cartel" ("Association of Scientific Corporations") in Göttingen, which was attended by German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer3 (1836-1921) from the Berlin Academy; from the Royal Society, Sir Michael Foster4 and the physicist Arthur William Rucker5 (1848-1915), and Messrs. Armstrong and Schuster6. As a result of this meeting, the Academies, which are part of the Cartel, approved the creation of the International Association of Academies, and representatives of the Royal Society promised to support such an undertaking. On October 9-10, 1899, at the IAA conference in Wiesbaden, which was held with the active participation of one of the secretaries of the Berlin Academy, astronomer Arthur von Auwers (1838-1915), the IAA charter was developed, which G. Darboux publishes in his article in full [ 17. — P. 203-206].
und Internationale Assoziation der Akademien (1892-1914). — URL: https://www.austriaca. at/0xc1aa5576%200x003d684e.pdf.
3 G.V. Waldeyer is also known for the fact that in 1891 he proposed the term "neuron", considered in the aggregate of the body with processes. And in 1883 he introduced the term "chromosome".
4 Michael Foster was one of the secretaries of the Royal Society from 1881 to 1903.
5 Arthur William Rucker served as Secretary of the Royal Society from 1896 to 1901.
6 Probably, G. Darboux calls the British physicist of German origin Arthur Schuster (1851-1934).
Conference of the International Association of Academies in Wiesbaden,
October 9-10, 1899
The photo shows:
Top row (left to right): Austrian chemist Adolf Lieben (1836-1914), English physicist Arthur Schuster (1851-1934), German mathematician Walter Dyck (1856-1934), Russian Iranian philologist Karl Zaleman (1849-1916), British chemist Henry E. Armstrong (1848-1937), German
philologist Friedrich Leo (1851-1914). Middle row (left to right): German jurist and legal historian Hermann von Sicher (1839-1901), German philologist Ernst Windisch (1844-1918), British physicist Arthur Ruecker (1848-1915), American physician and physiologist Henry P. Bowditch (1840-1911), German chemist Johannes Wislicenus (1835-1902), German philologist Hermann Alexander Diels (1848-1922), Russian botanist Andrey Famintsyn (1835-1918), French chemist Henri Moissan (1852-1907), Austrian chemist and physicist Victor von Lang (1838-1921), American chemist Ira Remsen (1846-1927),
German zoologist Ernst Ehlers (1835-1925). Bottom row (from left to right): French mathematician Gaston Darboux (1842-1917), German astronomer Arthur Overs (1838-1915), American astronomer Simon Newcomb (1835-1909), German geologist Karl von Zittel (1839-1904), German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902), Austrian philosopher Theodor Gompertz (1832-1912), Austrian philologist Adolf Mussafia
(1835-1905)
Based on the memoirs of the direct participants to the creation of the IAA, A.S. Famintsyn and G. Darboux, it can be stated that the process of creating the IAA does not contradict the information published in the monograph of the St. Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, namely: general interest. The Association took under its patronage a number of major scientific projects in the field of natural sciences and the humanities: seismologi-cal observations were developed, the 30th meridian arc was measured, a magnetic survey was made; editions of the works of Euler and Leibniz were being prepared. From humanitarian enterprises, the prepa-
ration of the Encyclopedia of Islam, the first volume of which was published in 1927, the publication of the Mahabharata and the collection of ancient Greek and Latin medical texts (Corpus medicorum antiquorum), etc., was carried out. The Association's bodies were the General Assembly and the Council. The general meeting met every three years and consisted of two sections, physical and mathematical and historical and philological. The first General Assembly was held in Paris in 1901, the second — in 1904 in London, the third congress was held in 1907 in Vienna, the fourth — in 1910 in Rome and, finally, the fifth — in 1913 in St. Petersburg.
The main initiators of the creation of the International Association of Academies were in 1898 the Royal Society of London and the Assembly of German Academies, which entered into negotiations with the most important scientific communities in Europe and America, including the Imperial Academy of Sciences. The founding conference was held in Wiesbaden on October 9-10, 1899. Ten academies were the founders of the Association: the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, the Royal Society of Sciences in Gottingen, the Royal Saxon Society of Sciences in Leipzig, the Royal Society in London, the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich, Academy of Sciences in Paris, Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, National Academy dei Lincei in Rome, National Academy of Sciences in Washington, Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna. The creation of the International Association of Academies was evidence of a kind of scientific work "globalization", expressed in the unification of efforts not only of individual scientists, but also of entire scientific institutions from different countries. In these international organizations, each academy represented the science of its country» [1. — P. 937-938].
IAA and the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences
The result of the conference on October 9-10, 1899, in Wiesbaden, was the decision to invite nine more Academies to the IAA — from Amsterdam, Brussels, Budapest, Christiania, Copenhagen, Madrid, Stockholm, as well as the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Literature (Paris) and the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences (Paris) [9 — p. 160]. Throughout the existence of the IAA, the composition of the participants was replenished, in subsequent years it also included: the British Academy, the Imperial Academy of Japan, the Swiss Society of Naturalists, the
Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Finnish Academy of Sciences in Helsingfors.
It should be noted that in 1901 in Paris, at a meeting of the General Assembly of the IAA, only one topic was proposed, which was proposed by the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences — the complete edition of the works of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The French philosopher Victor Brochard (1848-1907) voiced the proposal to the Assembly. Here are a few words from his speech: "Leibniz's scientific activity is so extensive that it interests more or less scientists from all over the world, regardless of the subject of research, and, without exaggeration, we can say that Leibniz, as it were, embodies the idea that we are trying to implement now. He is the world himself. From the age of 22, he dreamed of organizing a Bibliographic Review, an inventory of all human knowledge, an encyclopedia that combines all sciences in a deductive form. All his life he was preoccupied with the idea of creating a universal language or script. Finally, as President Darboux aptly pointed out in his speech, he was the first to have the idea of organizing a federation of academia. He was the forerunner of our Association and justice requires that our first work be dedicated to him" [9. — P. 164].
As a result, it was decided to present a plan for the publication of Leibniz's works by the next General Meeting of the IAA and instruct the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences and the Academy of Sciences in Berlin to elect one delegate-directors to run this enterprise with the following instructions: 1) address all libraries and public book depositories with a request to indicate all articles useful for this publication; 2) compile a descriptive or systematic catalog of these articles; 3) to prepare a detailed draft of the publication [9 — p. 165].
Some erroneous data about IAA
The paucity of research currently on the activities of the IAA leads to errors.
For example, The American Science Review wrote that "Before the war the International Association of Academies, of which the United States was not a member, formed in 1900, met the need for organized cooperation among scholars" [15. — P. 499]. But representatives of the United States participated in the creation of the IAA and in its activities. For example, a letter from the Russian astronomer Oskar Andreevich Backlund (1846-1916) to the National Academy of Sciences in Washington has been preserved on the official letterhead of the IAA. The scientist asks to be informed about the decision of the American Academy to include two new academies from Scotland and Finland into the Association. We publish the text of this letter (translated from French into English) in an appendix to this article (see Appendix No. 1). Therefore — we can say for sure — the American Academy participated in the activities of the IAA.
A telegram from the American astronomer George Ellery Hale to Russian scientists has also been preserved, in which it is reported that the United States entered the First World War and this event should contribute to the further development of cooperation between researchers from the United States and Russia (see Appendix No. 2). In response to a message from George Ellery Hale, a telegram was sent from Petrograd1 (see Appendix No. 3) signed by Sergei Fedorovich Oldenburg (1863-1934), permanent secretary of the Russian Academy of Sciences, stating that the Russian Academy of Sciences had received a telegram from American colleagues and was sending in response, fraternal greetings with firm conviction in the triumph of law [8]. S.F. Oldenburg requires a separate study, as an example of a scientist and diplomat, since he was elected to many foreign scientific academies and scientific centers, was a corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the Gottingen Acad-
1 St. Petersburg on August 18, 1914 was renamed Petrograd.
emy of Sciences, an honorary member of the Royal Asian Society of Great Britain, the Paris Asian Society, an honorary doctor of the Eberdeen University of Glasgow and the Archaeological Institute of India.
Moreover, from the published list of participants in the IAA conference in Wiesbaden in 1899 [See: 17 — P. 202] American scientists represented the National Academy in Washington at the IAA conference: astronomer and mathematician Simon Newcomb2 (1835-1909), chemist Ira Rem-sen3 (1846-1927) and physiologist Henry Pickering Bowditch (1840-1911). Such a list of representatives is also confirmed in the published reports of the National Academy in Washington, and the decision that the Academy accepts membership in the IAA4.
IAA in 1913
And one more mistake. Two scholarly websites state that the last activity of the IAA was in 1912: on the portal of the Union of International Associations [13] and on the site of the National Library of France project data.bnf.fr. Here is a quote from this resource: «Association créée en 1889 à Wiesbaden, Allemagne; fonctionne jusqu'en 1912 environ» [16] (In English: Association created in 1889 in Wiesbaden, Germany; operates until about 1912). But the documents say opposite. In 1913, the General Assembly (Congress) of the Association was held in St. Petersburg. In confirmation of this event, we are publishing a photocopy of the Card of Assembly Delegate George Ellery Hale, one of the founders of the California Institute of Technology.
2 Simon Newcomb was a member of the Royal Society of London (1877) of the Paris Academy of Sciences, was a foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1896).
3 Ira Remsen served as president of the US National Academy of Sciences from 1907 to 1913.
4 For more details see: Report of the National Academy of Sciences for the year 1899. Washington, 1900 — P. 13-18.
NB. La présente carte donne droit de participation aux travaux et excursions du Congrès tout en offrant l'avantage de servir de lettre de recommandation auprès des autorités russes.
ИМПЕРАТОРСКАЯ АКАДЕМ 1Я НАУКЪ.
Организации! ное Бюро Общпго Собрашя Международной Ассоц1&цш ЛкадопЛ, Ночетннмъ ИредсЪдатолемъ котораго состоит» Его Императорское Высочество Велижй Князь КОНСТАНТИНЪ КОНСТАНТИНОВИЧЪ, проентъ оказывать поименованному въ ссмъ билстЬ лицу, прп въ-Ьзд-Ь н во время пребывашя его въ Pocciii, всякое сод!;Яств1е, согласно опещальиымъ расноряжошямъ, сд-Ьланнымь своонременно под-ложащнмъ вТдомстиамъ Гг. Министрами: Иностранных!. Д+лъ, Внутрениихъ ДЬлъ, Финансовъ и Путей Сообщешя.
Figure 1 — Card of the delegate of the IAA Congress in 1913 in St. Petersburg. Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.31003705
On the back of the card is written in French: «Note. This card gives the right to participate in the work of the Congress and excursions, as well as the advantage as a letter of recommendation to the Russian authorities».
Also on the card is a text in Russian: «The Imperial Academy of Sciences. Organizational Bureau of the General Meeting of the International Association of Academies, whose Honorary Chairman is His Imperial Highness Grand Duke KONSTANTIN KONSTANTINOVICH1, asks that the person named on this ticket be indicated, upon entry and during his stay in Russia, is assisted in any necessary way, in accordance with special orders made in a timely manner to the relevant departments of Messrs. ministers: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance and communications».
Another document. This is an invitation from the city of St. Petersburg to a delegate to come to a concert in honor of the IAA Congress.
1 Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanov (1858-1915), great uncle of the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II, headed the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for over a quarter of a century, from 1889 to 1915. By decree of Emperor Alexander III of May 3, 1889, Konstantin Konstanti-novich was appointed the twelfth president of the Academy since its foundation in 1725.
It should also be noted that the Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire preserved the report of the Counselor of the Russian Embassy in Great Britain Nikolai Sevastyanovich von Etter2 (1865-1935) to the Second Department of the Russian Foreign Ministry of March 19 / April 1, in which he informs that the Secretary of the Royal Society R. Harrison applied to the Russian Embassy with a statement that the Congress of the International Association of Academies, which will be held in May 1913 in St. Petersburg, will be sent representatives — members of the Royal Society: one of the Secretaries of the Society, Professor Arthur Schuster3 (1851-1934 ); Lieutenant Colonel, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Sir David Prain4 (1857-1944); professor of physiology at Liverpool University Charles
2 Von Etter Nikolai Sevastyanovich — Russian diplomat, in 1906-1915 he was an adviser to the embassy in London. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Persian Court (1915-1917). In exile in Finland. He died in 1935 at the Heiko estate near Borgo.
3 Sir Franz Arthur Friedrich Schuster — English physicist, served as Secretary of the Royal Society and was elected Vice President (1919-20) and Foreign Secretary (1920-24).
4 Sir David Prain, a botanist, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1905 and also became director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He held this post until 1922.
Figure 2 — An invitation from the city of St. Petersburg to a delegate to come to a concert in honor of the IAA Congress. Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www. jstor.org/stable/community.31003705
Scott Sherrington1 (1857-1952) and professor of astronomy at Oxford University Herbert Hall Turner2 (1861-1930). At the same time, according to N.S. von-Etter, R. Harrison asked the Russian embassy in London to provide representatives of the Royal Society with travel to Russia «without any difficulties and special formalities» [19].
With the consent of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire, a photocopy of N.S. von-Etter are published in full in this publication.
In 1913, the activities of the Association continued. And this is confirmed by documents. In our subsequent articles, we will publish documents on the activities of the IAA, including the results and results of the congress of the organization in St. Petersburg in 1913.
In the personal archive of V.I. Verna-dsky, a list of delegates to this congress
1 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington — an outstanding English neurophysiologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1932 (1/2 prize, jointly with Edgar Adrian). Wording of the Nobel Committee: "for their discoveries concerning the functions of neurons" (for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons).
2 Herbert Hall Turner is a British astronomer and seismologist. Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society. From 1884-1894 he was chief assistant at
the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. It was he who transmitted to the Lowell Observatory the proposal of an eleven-year-old girl from Oxford, Venetia Burney, to name the ninth planet Pluto.
of the IAA has been preserved [4]. In the same year, a Russian scientist wrote an article about the IAA, which contains important words: "In these world cultural organizations we see the weak sprouts of a great future — a single world organization of all mankind, which our descendants will see. <...> In this personal communication and in the habit created through such congresses to work together to achieve goals that pursue scientific truth, eternal and unchanging, outside the framework of political and national life that separates us, lies the significance of organizations such as the Union of Academies "[2].
At the IAA congress in St. Petersburg not only purely scientific, but also universal issues were discussed — for example, how to move to a single calendar3. It was the question of the unification of the calendar that the French Academy of Sciences proposed to include in the discussion and in the final resolution following the results of the Congress (see Appendix No. 4).
Here is a quote from a surviving document: «The complex issues associated with the reform of the calendar will require careful study. Therefore, the [Paris] Acad-
3 The transition of the countries of the world to the Gregorian calendar was very long. For example, Denmark switched to it in 1700, Great Britain in 1752, Japan in 1873, China in 1911, Turkey in 1925, Bulgaria in 1916, Russia in 1918, Serbia in 1919, Greece in 1924.
421 \
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fj-'i, YtfUgiWS?) \ Т9Марта/1АПр£ля 1913 года.
So. iil VСекретарь Королевскасю
Общества (i'he Royal Society) обратился въ ИМПЕРАТОРСКОЕ Посольство оъ заяв~ лен1емъ, что на устрояемый въ Hat Mtcani въ С.-Петербург^ ИМПЕРАТОРСКОМ) Академ1ею Наукъ съ4зд8 Международной AccociauiH Академий названное Обцество отправляетъ четырехъ членовъ, въ качг-ств4 своихъ представителей, а именно: Поофессора Артура Щустера,одного ивъ Секретарей Общества,Подполковника Сэра Давида Прэна,Директора Королевскаго Ботаническаго Сада въ Кь», Профессора.
* : м
Vi'/
Figure 3 — Report of the Counselor of the Russian Embassy in the UK N.S. von-Etter to the Second Department of the Russian Foreign Ministry dated March 19/April 1, 1913.
emy proposes to the vote of the Association the following draft resolution: «The International Association of Academies decides to establish an International Commission on the Calendar, which is entrusted with studying issues related to the unification and simplification of
calendars and fixing the Easter holiday...» [11]. The full text of the proposal from the French Academy of Sciences can be found in Appendix No. 4 — we have translated this document from French into English.
In 1914, the world plunged into the First World War, and this was the reason
Чарльса Скотта Щеррингтона, профессора ФизЮлотЧи ъ% Ливерпульском* Университет^ и Профессора Герберта Голля Тернера, Профессора Астроном1и въ Оксфордской Университет^.
Bméctî ci означеннымъ заявленхемъ г.Р. Харрисонъ обратился въ Посольство съ ходатайством^ объ оказанли поименованным* делегатамъ возможнаго содМств1я, въ видах* обезпеченЛя имъ проезда въ С.-Петербург* безъ какихъ либо затруднен^ и осо— бенныхъ формальностей«
Доводя о вышеизложенном* до св$Л,вн1я Второго Департамента, ИМПЕРАТОРСКОЕ Посольство будете имйть честь ожидать указан!й относительно просимый льгот*, предполагая, съ своей стороны, ограничить их* общею рекомендаЩев пограничной нашей Таможне.
Советник* Посольства:
Source. AFPRE, f. Second department, op. 691, d. 74, l. 6-6rev [АВПРИ, ф. Второй
департамент, оп. 691, д. 74, л. 6-6об.].
IAA's contribution to the development of science and scientific diplomacy
In our opinion, the results of the IAA's activities are underestimated by contemporaries. Some researchers, for example
why the Association ceased its activities, despite the fact that the Berlin Academy, which was supposed to be in charge of the Association, transferred its powers to the Royal Academy in Antwerp. The academies of the Entente countries did not agree to further cooperation Tsee: 1. — P. 8961.
P. Alter1, present the results of the IAA activities briefly, moreover, it is claimed that they were insignificant. It seems to us, that such a conclusion calls for preliminary study of the results of the IAA's activities, which currently does not exist.
Although even now we can mention worth contribution of the IAA to the development of human science, its connection with the brain studies.
At the turn of 19 century, the Swiss anatomist and embryologist Wilhelm Gies (1831-1904) paved the way to a brain study project. One institute could not manage to put so ambitious project into practice, so since the 1900s, the scientist has been working on a plan to create a network of research institutes for mapping the brains of animals and humans. The detailed development of the brain research project and its further implementation was handled by the Central Commission for Brain Research2, which was established by the IAA on June 5, 1903 in London. Wilhelm Gees was elected the first chairman of this commission, and after his death in 1904, Gees was replaced by the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer (1836-1921).
At the same time, the decision to create a commission was made at the first Congress of the IAA in 1901 in Paris. Due to the report on the Congress of A.S. Famintsyn, we can accurately reproduce this decision of the IAA: "... to form a commission under the Association to develop
1 See: Alter P. The Royal Society and the International Association of Academies 1897-1919 // Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Mar., 1980), pp. 241-264.
2 On the establishment and activities of the commission, see the following publications: Eling P., Hofman M.A. The Central Institute for Brain Research in Amsterdam and its Directors // Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 23: 109-119, 2014; Jagella S., Koehler P.J. The International Brain Commission (1903-1914): Dutch and Swiss Perspective (Towards Neurosciences Beyond Borders) // Clinical & Trans-lational Neuroscience January-June 2018: 1-10; Richter J. The Brain Commission of the International Association of Academies: The first international society of neurosciences // Brain Research Bulletin, Vol. 52, No. 6, pp. 445-457, 2000.
brain anatomy together and instruct it to develop a plan for the establishment of a system of international institutions, in order to improve research methods, collecting monotonous reception of material that would be available to any scientist for use" [9. — P. 167].
The commission was attended by the main brain researchers of that time, such as the British scientist in the field of physiology and neurobiology Charles S. Sherrington (1857-1952), the Spanish physician and histologist Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934), the Swiss neurologist of Russian origin Konstantin von Monakov (1853-1930), the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) Russian Russian neurologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927), Russian histologist Alexander Stanislavovich Dogel (1852-1922), Scottish neurologist and psychologist David Ferrier (1843-1928), Russian neurologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927), Russian histologist Alexander Stanislavovich Dogel (1852-1922), etc.
In May 1904, the IAA approved a resolution of the Central Commission for Brain Research. According to it, national academies and societies that participated in the IAA should appeal to the governments of their countries "with a request to establish special Institutes for the study of the nervous system, abbreviated as Institutes for the Study of the brain"3 or to develop existing institutions to achieve this goal. This resolution is a concrete example of the contribution of scientific diplomacy to the development of science, both in general and for individual countries of the world.
Due to the efforts of the Central Commission for Brain Research of the IAA, the V.M. Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg (Russia)4, the Karoli
3 Cit. by: Richter J. The Brain Commission of the International Association of Academies: The first international society of neurosciences // Brain Research Bulletin, Vol. 52, No. 6. P. 447.
4 On June 9, 1907, Nicholas II considered the case "On the establishment of a Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg" and approved it with sig-
Shaffer Institute of Brain Histology1 in Budapest (Hungary), and the Netherlands Central Institute for Brain Research under the leadership of Professor K.U. Ariens Kappers were established2.
As a result, the network of "intera-cademic brain institutes" included nine research centers in different cities of the world: Madrid (Ramon y Cajal, 1904), Leipzig (Paul Flechsig, 1904), Frankfurt am Main (Ludwig Edinger, 1904), Vienna (Heinrich Obersteiner, 1906), Zurich (Mo-nakov, 1906), Philadelphia (Henry H. Donaldson, 1906), St. Petersburg (Vladimir Bekhterev, 1907-1908), Amsterdam (Cornelius W. Ariens Kappers, 1909) and Budapest (Karoli Shaffer, 1912).
The IAA Brain Commission had no successor since the termination of the IAA's activities, for almost half a century, until 1961, when the International Organization for Brain Research (IBRO) was established. This fact suggests it is possible to organize integration processes in the field of scientific research, but when relations break off, restoring them is not an easy task, sometimes requiring decades.
At the end the IAA review, it is necessary quote the words about the meaning of scientific diplomacy by Arthur Schuster, which are very relevant for current times: "I do not wish to exaggerate the civilizing value of scientific investigation, but the great problems of creation link all humanity together, and it may yet come to pass that when diplomacy fails —and it is often comes perilously near failure — it will fall to the men of science and learning to preserve the peace of the world"3.
nature in a Special journal of the Council of Ministers. This date became the official date of the Institute's establishment. The Psychoneurological Institute was created not only as a research institution in distinction from institutes in other countries, but also as a higher educational institution.
1 Karoly Shaffer (1864-1939) — Hungarian neurologist.
2 Cornelius UbboAriens Cappers (1877-1946) — Dutch neurologist.
3 Cit. by: Alter P. The Royal Society and the International Association of Academies 1897-1919 //
Conferences that have made a great contribution to the development of scientific diplomacy in the second half of the 20th century
The following international scientific forums, organizations and initiatives, which originate in the 20th century, also made a huge contribution to the development of scientific diplomacy [see: 6. — P. 40]:
Pugwash conferences. The Pugwash Conferences began with the RussellEinstein Manifesto, which was announced in 1955 in London. The authors of the manifesto suggested holding a meeting of scientists to consider the threats posed to the world by nuclear weapons. The first Pugwash Conference with the participation of scientists from 10 countries took place on July 7-10, 1957 in the town of Pugwash (Pugwash; Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada). The success of the first conference in Pugwash was largely due to the participation of Russian scientists in it — physicist, academician
D.V. Skobeltsyn (1892-1990), chemist, academician A.V. Topchiev (1907-1962) and biophysicist and radiobiologist, future corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences A.M. Kuzin (1906-1999).
Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and one of the active participants in the Pugwash movement
E.M. Primakov (1929-2015) wrote in his memoirs: «The Pugwash movement has become <...> the most important channel of communication between influential representatives of the USSR, the USA, and Western Europe. When there were practically no contacts at the state and government levels, this "vacuum" was filled through the Pugwash and some other channels, through which contacts were made between the two "camps" lining up missiles with nuclear warheads against each other» [quoted from the source: 3].
Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Mar., 1980). P. 246.
Such conferences are an example of highlevel scientific diplomacy.
The participants of the Pugwash conferences made calculations and proved that in the event of a nuclear war, a «nuclear winter» would come on earth, which would destroy all life on the planet and no one could survive.
Dartmouth Conferences (or Dartmouth Dialogue). The first Dartmouth conference took place in October 1960 at Dartmouth College in the United States. One of the founding members of the conference is Norman Cousins (1915-1990), editor of the Saturday Review. Since 1971, US support for the conferences has been provided by the Kettering Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Lilly Foundation. On the part of the USSR — the Soviet Committee for the Defense of Peace, as well as the Institute of the USA and Canada and the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, or IMEMO.
In his memoirs, David Rockefeller, who took an active part in the Dartmouth Dialogue, wrote: «Although the Dartmouth Conferences did not change the course of history, they were a platform where significant issues could be discussed and new ideas could be proposed. Each of us who took part, whether American or Russian, learned something about the attitudes, motivations, and hopes of our partners that made it impossible to think that remained only in the rigid ideological categories of the Cold War. The Dartmouth meetings broke down barriers and made change possible» [8 — p. 236].
Among the participants from the USSR were such scientists as V.M. Chkhikvadze (1912-2006), director of the Institute of State and Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences; M.I. Rubinstein (1894-1969), one
of the leading Soviet economists, member of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the USSR Academy of Sciences (IMEMO, USSR Academy of Sciences). Also, the future Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Chairman of the Government of Russia E.M. Primakov, who wrote in his memoirs: «As for the Dartmouth meetings, they were regularly held in order to discuss and bring together the approaches of the two superpowers on the issues of arms reduction, the search for a way out of various international conflicts, and the creation of conditions for economic cooperation» [7. — p. 49].
Today, when relations between Russia and the United States are at a very low and dangerous level, the Dartmouth conferences are more relevant than ever. We can welcome the fact that after a 24-year break — in 2014 — the conference resumed its work. On November 4-5, 2014, the 18th Dartmouth Conference took place in Dayton (USA). The honorary co-chairs of the conference were E.M. Primakov, from the USA — Henry Kissinger.
As for practical activities, in addition to the above conferences and organizations, scientists from different countries carry out a lot of work on an ongoing basis in the field of international communication, thereby helping diplomats to develop cooperation with various countries both in the field of science and education, and in economic and political issues.
Today it is necessary to study the history of science diplomacy, which was formed precisely through such organizations and forums as the IAA, the Pugwash Conferences, the Dartmouth Conferences, etc. We believe that the study of these scientific initiatives of the past will help to more accurately form the modern concept of science diplomacy.
Appendix No. 1
SOME ARCHIVAL DOCUMENTS ABOUT THE ACTIVITIES OF THE IAA
Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.31003705
Translation of the letter from French into English: To the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, DC
In accordance with the resolution approved by the General Assembly of the association on May 14, 1913, the Bureau has the honor to put to the vote Edinburgh Royal Society and
Finnish Academy of Sciences in Helsingfors
for election to the Associated Academies, an election for which the so-called assembly expressed its full sympathy.
The Bureau urges you to send it your decision to admit these two companies to the Association.
President O. Backlund.
Appendix No. 2
Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www.istor.org/stable/communitv.31003705
Appendix No. 3
ACADEMIE SCIENCES RUSSE VIENT RECEVOIR VOTRE CHAIiUREUX TELEGRAMME HEUREUX ETRE UNIS AVEC GRANDE REPUBLIQUE AMERICAINE DANS CAUSEE COMMUNE HUMANITE LIHïïRTE DES PEUPLES ENVOIE SALUTS MATERNELS AVEC FERME CONVICTION
Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www.istor.org/stable/community.31003705
Translation of the telegram from French into English:
Petrograd May 27, 1917 National Academy of Science
Washington
The Russian Academy of Sciences has just received a cordial telegram, rejoicing that we have united with the great republic of America in the community of peoples' humanitarian freedoms, we send fraternal greetings with firm conviction in the triumph of law.
Oldenburg, permanent secretary
Appendix No. 4
INSTITUT l)K FRANCE
ACADÉMIE DES SCIENCES
PROJET DE RÉSOLUTION
riEMMK
A LA CINQUIÈME ASSKMIII.KK CÉNKHAI.E
DK L'ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DES ACADÉMIES
I. ACADEMIE IMI'ÊRIALK DES SCIENCES HK SAINT PETKRSBOCRI! 11)13
L—^_____________
Translation of the Draft Resolution from French into English:
Institute of France Draft Resolution of the Academy of Sciences, Submitted to the Fifth General Assembly From the International Association of Academies
at the directorate Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg 1913
PROJET DE RÉSOLUTION
L'Académie de« Sciences de Paris, en demandant de inellre à l'ordre du jour l'unification et la simplification des calendriers, a seulement voulu montrer l'intérêt que prend à ces problème» le monde scientifique. Il lui semble qu'il serait prématuré d'ouvrir dé« maintenant une discussion sur les nombreux projets qui (loui-mieiit être proposés. Les question* complexes, que soulève la reforme du Calendrier, demanderont une étude approfondie. Aussi l'Académie propose-t-elle au vole de l'Association le projet suivant de résolution :
« L'Association internationale des Académies décide la création d'une Commission internationale du Calendrier, chargée d'étudier les questions relatives à l'unification et la simplification des calendriers et à la fixité de la fête de IViques. Les membres de cette Commission seront désignés par chacune des Académies associées, à raison de deux par Académie, sansqu'ils lui appartiennent nécessairement, conformément à l'article 10 des Statuts. La Commission du (Calendrier, dont le président sera de la nationalité de l'Académie directrice |>endanl la période (i;|i4-if)l<>). fera un rapport sur ses travaux à la prochaine session de l'Association internationale, après »'être mise en relations, si elle le juge utile, avec les Autorités ecclésiastiques intéressées. »
Source: California Institute of Technology, Part of George Ellery Hale Papers. LOCAL IDENTIFIER: hale: 96212, local: GEH_2_49_2. Stable URL: https://www.istor.org/stable/communitv.31003705
DRAFT RESOLUTION
The Paris Academy of Sciences, asking to put on the agenda the unification and simplification of the calendar, only wanted to show the interest that the scientific world shows in these problems. It seems that it would be premature now to start discussing the many projects that might be proposed. The complex issues associated with calendar reform will require careful study.
The Academy therefore proposes to the vote of the Association the following draft resolution:
"The International Association of Academies decides to establish an International Calendar Commission, which is entrusted with studying issues related to the unification and simplification of calendars and fixing the Easter holiday. Members of this commission will be appointed by each of the associated academies in the amount of two persons for each academy without mandatory membership in it in accordance with Article 10 of the Charter. The Schedule Commission, chaired by a citizen of the Director's Academy during the period (1914-1916), will present a report on its work at the next session of the International Association after establishing relations, if it deems it appropriate, with the ecclesiastical authorities concerned.
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