73Л.В. Толстикова
Кубанский государственный университет
УДК 070:81'42
THE NOTION OF BORROWINGS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ASSIMILATION PROCESSES
(ON THE BASES OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN BORROWINGS IN THE NEWSPAPER DISCOURSE)
The article considers the concept of the assimilation of Russisms and Anglicisms in the newspaper discourse. Particular attention is paid to the parameters that allow the data classification according to the degree of assimilation. Emphasis is placed on this reason for the emergence of economic, political and cultural ties between the peoples.
Keywords: assimilation, borrowing, newspaper discourse, Russism, Anglicism, extra-linguistic relations.
The famous Soviet and Russian linguist I.V. Arnold considers the term assimilation of a borrowing as a complete or incomplete conformation to the phonetic, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system [2, p. 231]. This criterion of the interaction between the languages, or extra-linguistic relations is also important in the definition of borrowings.
The term "borrowing" has several scientific definitions. So, for example, according to Vorno E.F., Kashcheeva M.A. et al. [4, p. 94-95], borrowing refers to words of foreign origin. In the framework of this approach, when analyzing the vocabulary of the English and Russian languages at the present stage of their development, all vocabulary of these languages should be recognized as English and Russian, except for words whose phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic structure has an obvious foreign language origin, that is, borrowings (e.g., steppe, sputnik - «степь», «спутник» from Russian; саундтрек (from English "soundtrack"), сингл (from English "single"), римейк (from English "remake"). At the same time, for example, words that are known from the Old English period and have correspondences in other Germanic languages are considered traditionally English. The rest of the vocabulary of modern English, according to Vorno E.F., Kashcheeva M.A. et al., refers to words of foreign origin, among which there are words that came into English from Latin, French, Greek and other languages, including Russian.
Borrowings from the point of view of the famous British linguist and book author David Crystal in his Dictionary of linguistics and phonetics are understood as a linguistic form taken over by one language or dialect from another; such borrowings are usually known as "loan words" (e.g., restaurant, bonhomie, chagrin, which have come into English from French) [7, p. 56].
The vocabulary learned or assimilated by the English and Russian vocabulary includes Russian borrowings (or Russisms) and English borrowings (Anglicisms), respectively [5, p. 114].
In this article, under English borrowings (Anglicisms) and Russian borrowings (Russisms) we understand, on the one hand, the process of accessing the vocabulary of the English and Russian languages that occurs during historical contacts between the English and Russian peoples in order to express new concepts, i.e. the conscious process of replenishing the lexical composition of the English and Russian languages; on the other hand, words and phrases of English and Russian languages, which entered the vocabulary as a result of borrowing [6, p. 92].
The way the word "sputnik" penetrated into the English language shows such extra linguistic connections in the history of vocabulary. So far, in the USSR and the USA, preparations were only being made for the launch of artificial satellites, mainly the terms artificial satellite, man-made moon were used in English literature. The moment the Soviet Union announced the launch of the first artificial satellite, the word "baby-moon" with a clearly expressed positive emotional coloring appeared and became commonly used. However, the popularity of this event and universal admiration for the grandiose achievement of Russian science contributed to the quick overall use of the Russism "sputnik' in all the languages of the world, leaving no place for its other synonyms [2, p. 229].
However, words that enter the language are not equally assimilated by it, that is, they have different degrees of assimilation: from the degree of a single use to the degree of complete assimilation. So the borrowing process is a complex phenomenon which takes three general stages:
1. The foreign word enters a new language. It is a common stage for all foreign words, but, according to V.M. Aristova, the time its assimilation takes may be different. This process takes less in case of the occasional use of words that have, as a rule, equivalents - absolute synonyms in the Russian language [1, p. 9]. Words which denote objects or notions absent in the Russian reality (e.g., a cop, Quakers, gin, etc.), take more time to be fully assimilated because they have to be consciously used by the speakers of the recipient, with a small definition or no definition at all.
2. The foreign word acquires morphological and phonetic characteristics of the recipient (incomplete assimilation, or 'period of borrowing)' [1, p. 9]. Some semantic changes can take place at this period under the influence of the receiving language. The word can even get a completely different definition in a dictionary. Among the reasons of this, V.M. Aristova names a more frequent use of the borrowing in the language-recipient.
3. The foreign word can be fully accepted by the recipient (complete assimilation). This period is characterized by the full formal and semantic acquisition of a borrowing by the receptive language.
It should be noted that the process of assimilation is very flexible. The word does not necessarily go through all of these stages. Some foreign words linger in the language occasionally and mostly when speaking about some historical epoch, others start to be used without restrictions and acquire all characteristics of the receptive language thus becoming fully assimilated.
According to the degree of assimilation, Russisms and Anglicisms can be divided into complete, or full; incomplete, or partial borrowings, and not acquired by the English and Russian languages.
An article by The Guardian of January 26, 2011 states that President Barack Obama warned of the danger to US economic power and global influence from China's growth. This article states that he appealed for Republicans to abandon claims for huge budget cuts and back the biggest government investment programme since the 1960s space race.
"Half a century ago, when the Soviets beat us into space with the launch of a satellite called Sputnik, we had no idea how we'd beat them to the moon," he told congress [The Guardian, Wed 26, Jan, 2011 www.theguardian.com/ world/2011/ jan/26/state-of-the-union-address-obama-sputnik-moment].
The word "sputnik" can be considered an example of Russism, partially acquired by the English language, since this word is often accompanied by a definition, or definition of a meaning. In addition, English makes a partial borrowing of the meaning, that is, it assimilates only the concept related to the space achievements of the Soviet Union.
A borrowed word can also act in different syntactic functions, which indicates a significant degree of assimilation. For instance: In the annual state of the union address, the US president appealed for the Republicans to co-operate to "win the future" and said the present generation faces its "Sputnik moment", requiring government investment in research, infrastructure and education [The Guardian, Wed 26, Jan, 2011 www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/26/state-of-the-union-address-obama-sputnik-moment]. - In this example, the partial borrowing "sputnik" is the definition for the word "moment".
Or: But after investing in better research and education, we didn't just surpass the Soviets - we unleashed a wave of innovation that created new industries and millions of new jobs [The Guardian, Wed 26, Jan, 2011 www.theguardian. com/world/2011/j an/26/state-of-the-union-address-obama-sputnik-moment]. In this example, a partial borrowing is also presented. It is a Russism "Soviet", represented by a noun in the plural. The English language makes a partial borrowing of the meaning, that is, it assimilates only the concept relating to the Soviet Union.
Anglicism «саммит» (summit) entered Russian in one of the meanings -"meeting and negotiations at the highest level (for example, heads of state or government)". For example: Отношения нормализовались во время саммита АТЭС (Relations normalized during the APEC summit) [Komsomolskaya Prav-da, December 24, 2010, p. 2]. Therefore, such a borrowing also undergoes partial assimilation in the Russian language.
Thus, the Russian and English languages have their own internal laws that determine their national specificity. Borrowing, falling into the English and Russian languages, is gradually assimilated into them, subject to the grammatical phonetic and semantic system.
References
1. Аристова В.М. Англо-русские языковые контакты / англицизмы в русском языке. Л.: Изд-во Ленинградс. Ун-та, 1978. 152с.
2. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка: учеб. пособие. 2-е изд., перераб. М.: ФЛИНТА: Наука, 2012. 376 с.
3. Ахманова О.С. О психолингвистике. М.: «Наука», 1956. 367с
4. Ворно Е.Ф., КащееваМ.А. Лексикология английского языка. Л.: Ленингр. отд. Учпедгиза, 1955. 945 с.
5. Толстикова Л.В. Актуальные проблемы современного языкознания и литературоведения: Материалы 8-й межвузовской конференции молодых ученых. Краснодар: Кубанский гос. ун-т, 2009. 337с.
6. Толстикова Л.В. Когнитивно-прагматический и лингвокультурологический аспекты функционирования русизмов в англоязычном и англицизмов в русскоязычном газетных дискурсах: дис. ... кандидата филологических наук: 10.02.19 [Место защиты: Адыг. гос. ун-т]. Майкоп, 2012. С.92.
7. Crystal David (1941) A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 5th ed. p. cm. (The Language library). Blackwell Publishing, 2003. 508 p.
8. Dolgaleva E.E. MODERN LINGUISTIC SYSTEMS AS INSTRUMENTS OF THE REALITY TRANSFORMATION. Peer-reviewed materials digest (collective monograph) published following the results of the LXXVI International Research and Practice Conference and I stage of the Championship in Philological sciences (London, February 20 - February 25, 2014). IASHE. London, 2014. C.72.
А.В. Филатова
Саратовский национальный исследовательский государственный университет имени Н.Г. Чернышевского
УДК 81'371
КРИМИНАЛЬНАЯ МЕТАФОРА В БИОЛОГИЧЕСКОМ НАУЧНО-ПОПУЛЯРНОМ АНГЛОЯЗЫЧНОМ ДИСКУРСЕ
В статье рассматривается сфера-источник КРИМИНАЛ, представленная одним из ее слотов - ПРЕСТУПНИКИ И ИХ СПЕЦИАЛИЗАЦИЯ. Этот фрейм представляет собой наиболее продуктивную понятийную зону метафорической экспансии в биологическом научно-популярном англоязычном дискурсе. Анализ этого фрейма позволяет сделать определенные выводы о функционировании криминальной концептуальной метафоры в данном типе дискурса.
Ключевые слова: концептуальная метафора, слот ПРЕСТУПНИКИ И ИХ СПЕЦИАЛИЗАЦИЯ, концептуальный признак переноса, метафорическая модель, сфера-цель, дискурс, научно-популярный биологический англоязычный дискурс.
THE CRIME METAPHOR IN BIOLOGICAL POPULAR SCIENCE
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