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24RESEARCH
DOI 10.23859/2587-8352-2017-1-1-1 UDC 94 (47).073
Olga Solodyankina
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Cherepovets State University Cherepovets, Russian Federation olga_solodiankin@mail.ru
The Mediterranean region and the Mediterranean images in the activities of foreign family tutors and governesses in the Russian Empire
Abstract. The article discusses the activities of tutors and governesses, who came from the Mediterranean region; a very small group among the foreign teachers who worked in the Russian Empire, where the reviews about their professionalism were quite contradictory. The Italian language was rarely included into the circle of subjects, which the foreign teachers (not necessarily Italian in origin) knew and could teach. A visit to the Mediterranean could be part of an educational tour abroad, carried out under the supervision of a tutor. Warm Mediterranean countries were also visited during a 'healing tour' - made by both sick children under the supervision of teachers and unhealthy adult patients accompanied by children with their foreign mentors. The Mediterranean region, its lush nature and rich culture made a lasting impression on everyone who ever came there.
Keywords: home education and upbringing, the Russian Empire, foreign family tutors, foreign governesses, Mediterranean, Italian, intercultural interaction
Introduction
Activities of home mentors (family tutors, governesses, home male and female teachers) have traditionally attracted attention of many researchers. There is a significant historiographical tradition in studying the activities of our countrymen who worked as teachers in their own country (and abroad especially extensive is the British historiography, concentrating primarily on the study of the phenomenon of a Victorian governess)1. Recently, the topic of special colloquia and conferences was de-
1 Gathorne-Hardy J. The Rise and Fall of the British Nanny. London Sydney; Auckland; Toronto, 1972; Pitcher H. When Miss Emmie was in Russia. English Governess Before, During and After the October Revolution. London; Toronto, 1984; Renton A. Tyrant or Victim? A History of the British Governess. London, 1991; Cross A. Early Miss Emmies: British nannies, governesses and companions in pre-emancipation Russia. Anglo-Russica. Aspects of Cultural Relations between Great Britain and Russia in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Selected Essays by Anthony Cross. Oxford; Providence, 1993, pp. 222-244; Cross A. The testament of a forgotten 'wife'. Anglo-Russica. Aspects of Cultural Relations between Great Britain and Russia in the 18th and early 19th
voted to the work of French family tutors and governesses . Gradually, a whole research niche appeared as related to the study of the situation and the activities of foreigners, including those working in the field of education and training, in the Russian Empire . In this article, the attention of the research is centered around family tutors and governesses, as well as home tutors - immigrants from the Mediterranean region (except southern France, since French teachers have traditionally been a subject of special studies); the languages of the region in the process of teaching children of Russian nobility; as well as the role that the Mediterranean region had in the activities of foreign tutors - representatives of other countries, who worked in Russia.
Main body
Education and upbringing with the help of foreign family tutors and governesses was very popular in the noble families of the Russian Empire. Typically, home teachers, family tutors and governesses were born in France, Switzerland, the UK and the States of Germany. This was associated with a high level of education (such as in
Centuries. Selected Essays by Anthony Cross. Oxford; Providence, 1993, pp. 245-255; Hughes K. The Victorian governess. London; Rio Grande, Ohio,1993; Hardach-Pinke I. Die Gouvernante: Geschichte eines Frauenberufs. Frankfurt am Main, 1997; Cross A.G. 'By the banks of the Neva': Chapters from the lives and careers of the British in 18th - century Russia. Cambridge, 1997; Ruth B. Other people's daughters: The life and times of the governess. London, 2008; Holden K. Nanny Knows Best: The History of the British Nanny. Stroud, 2013.
2 Ezhegodnik 2011: Frankoiazychnye guvernery v Evrope XVII-XIX vv [French Yearbook: Francophone Tutors in Europe in the 17th-19th Centuries]. Moscow, 2011; Le précepteur francophone en Europe XVIF-XIXsiècles. Paris, 2013.
3 Dunin A. Guvernery v starinu v pomeshchich'ikh sem'iakh [Tutors in the old days in landlord families (essay)]. Istoricheskii vestnik [Historical Herald], 1909, vol. 117, pp. 185-194; Rzheutskii V.S. Frantsuzskie guvernery v Akademii hudozhestv v 1760-1770 gg. [French tutors at the Academy of Fine Arts. 1760-1770s]. Vosemnadtsatyi vek kak kul'turno-istoricheskii fenomen (Problemy izucheniia). Sbornik nauchnyh trudov [18th century as a historical and cultural phenomenon (problems of study)]. St. Petersburg, 2002, pp. 65-74; Rzheutskii V.S., Somov V.A. Frantsuzy v Rossii v jepohu Prosveshcheniia (materialy k istorii russko-frantsuzskikh sviazei 1760-1780-kh gg. iz ark-hiva frantsuzskogo posol'stva v Sankt-Peterburge) [The French in Russia in the Age of Enlightenment (materials on the history of Russian-French relations of the 1760s-80s from the Archive of the French Embassy in St. Petersburg)]. Zapadnoevropeiskaia kul'tura v rukopisiakh i knigakh Ros-siiskoi Natsional'noi biblioteki [Western European Culture in Manuscripts and Books of the Russian National Library]; ed. by L.I. Kiseleva. St. Petersburg, 2001, pp. 285-300; Kovrigina V.A. Nemets-kaia sloboda Moskvy i ee zhiteli v kontse XVII -pervoi chetverti XVIII veka [The German suburb of Moscow and its inhabitants in the late 17th - first quarter of the 18th century]. Moscow, 1997; Chudinov A.V. Frantsuzskie guvernery v Rossii kontsa XVIII v.: stereotipy i real'nost' [French tutors in Russia at the end of the 18th century: stereotypes and reality]. Evropeiskoe Prosveshchenie i tsivilizatsiia Rossii [European Enlightenment and Civilization of Russia], chief eds S.I. Karp, S.A. Mezin. Moscow, 2004, pp. 330-334; Solodyankina O.Y. Inostrannye guvernantki v Rossii (vtoraia polovina XVIII -pervaiapolovina XIXveka) [Foreign governesses in Russia (the second half of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century)]. Moscow, 2007; Tikhonova A.V. Shveitsarskie uchitelia v Rossii pervoi poloviny XIX v. [Swiss teachers in Russia in the first half of the 19th century]. Vo-prosy istorii [Questions of history], 2011, no. 9, pp. 142-147.
Switzerland4), and peculiarities of the situation with women, and especially young girls (who in case of lack or absence of inherited funds had nothing more to do than to earn their living; and teaching was almost the only opportunity to receive more or less acceptable earnings5), also bearing in mind the popularity of foreign languages that the Russian nobility desired to learn (with French being almost obligatory for a nobleman, as they were supposed to speak with a Parisian accent6).
Only a few family tutors and governesses, who worked in Russia, came from Southern Europe, namely from the Mediterranean region - among them there were Italians, Spaniards and Greeks. This peculiarity was already noticed by their contemporaries. As D.P. Runich, who in the first quarter of the 19th century was known as the administrator in the field of education, wrote that "a noble family, who had no French tutor or a governess, considered themselves unhappy. The Germans were not loved; Englishwomen in Russia were not in abundance. Of the British in Moscow, there were only speculators, horse traders and footmen. Of Italians, except for two or three teachers of music, all the others were vagrants or peddlers selling prints, umbrellas, powder, lipstick and perfume" .
4 See more: Vodovozova E.N. Kak liudi na belom svete zhivut. Shveitsartsy [How people live in this world. The Swiss]. St. Petersburg, 1904; Tikhonova A.V. Shveitsarskie uchitelia v Rossii per-voi poloviny XIX v. [Swiss teachers in Russia in the first half of the 19th century]. Voprosy istorii [Questions of history], 2011, no. 9, pp. 142-147.
5See more: Solodyankina O. Y. Sotsial'noe polozhenie inostrannykh nastavnikov v Rossii (vto-raia polovina XVIII - pervaia polovina XIX v.) [Social position of foreign mentors in Russia (second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th century)]. Vestnik Moskovskogo gosudarstvennogo oblastnogo universiteta. Ser.: Istoriia i politicheskie nauki [Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University. Series 'History and Political Sciences'], 2008, no. 2, pp. 10-24; Efimova E.Sh. Poloz-henie guvernantok i uchitel'nits v Velikobritanii poslednei treti XIX veka [The situation with governesses and teachers in Great Britain in the last third of the 19th century]. Vestnik Cheliabinskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta [Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State University], 2011, no. 23 (238). History, vol. 47, pp. 164-168.
6See more: Alekseev M.P. Angliiskii iazyk v Rossii i russkii iazyk v Anglii [English in Russia and Russian in England]. Uchenye zapiski LGU. Ser. Filologicheskie nauki [Scientific Notes of Leningrad State University. Ser. Philology], 1944, is. 9, pp. 77-137; Zhane D.K. Frantsuzskii iazyk v Rossii XVIII v. kak obshchestvennoe iavlenie [French language in Russia of the 18th century as a social phenomenon]. VestnikMoskovskogo universiteta, 1978. Ser. IX: Filologiia [Bulletin of Moscow University, 1978. Ser. IX. Philology], no. 1, pp. 62-70; Alekseev M.P. Russko-angliiskie lit-eraturnye sviazi (XVIII vek - pervaia polovina XIX veka) [Russian-English literary connections (18th century - the first half of the 19th century)]. Literaturnoe nasledstvo [Literary Heritage], vol. 91. Moscow, 1982; Argent G., Offord D., Rjeoutski V. The Functions and Value of Foreign Languages in Eighteenth-Century Russia. The Russian Review, 2015, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 1-19; Cross A. English - A Serious Challenge to French in the Reign of Alexander I? The Russian Review, 2015, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 57-68. Dahmen K. The Russian Review, 2015, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 20-40; Offord D., Ryazanova-Clarke L., Rjeoutski V. and Argent G. (eds) French and Russian in Imperial Russia. Edinburgh, 2015. 2 vols.
7 Runich D.P. Iz zapisok D.P. Runicha [From the notes of D.P. Runich]. Russkaia starina [Russian Antiquity], 1901, no. 1, p. 52.
This picture of almost complete absence of any representatives from the Mediterranean region in the teaching profession is also confirmed by the official data: in the materials of the testing committee of St. Petersburg and Moscow universities, designed to verify the knowledge of potential tutors and governesses, and provide them with a certificate for teaching in private homes, one could extremely rarely find any names or representatives of the Italian states; let alone any Spaniards, Portuguese and Greeks8.
Thus, in 1835 a certificate granting the right to work as a home teacher of French was received by the Sardinian subject Maria Lyoto, who passed the test successfully at Moscow University9. In October 1845, the Sardinian subject Henri Monastie applied to the trial committee of Moscow University with a request to check his knowledge: he expected to become a home tutor of French. During the test, Monastie demonstrated a very good knowledge of French, whereas the knowledge in history and geography was enough, with decent knowledge of arithmetic as well10.
As we can see, both Sardinians wanted to teach the French language, understanding its exceptional demand in the market of educational services and weak interest in the Italian language. The Russian nobility had no need to learn Spanish and Portuguese at all because of the negligible influence of these countries on the international arena.
An Italian Venturi acted in the same vein, almost a century before those Sardinians arrived; in the middle of the 18th century he kept a private boarding school in St. Petersburg: the French language was taught to nobility children there; and the most famous pupil was Nikolay Mordvinov (1754-1845), future admiral11.
It was French, and not the Italian language that was taught by Nikolai Ivanovich Bartoli, son of an Italian, to his pupil Dmitry Sverbeev (1799-1874), later a diplomat. As afterwards the disciple of his mentor recalled, "He knew foreign languages<...> worse than Russian; he spoke French fluently with me, but right or wrong - there was
8 See: Solodyankina O.Yu. Frantsuzskie guvernery i guvernantki v Moskovskom i Peter-burgskom uchebnykh okrugakh (1820-1850-e gg.) [The French tutors and governesses in Moscow and St Petersburgh learning districts (1820-1850-s)]. Frantsuzskii ezhegodnik 2011: Frankoia-zychnye guvernery v Evrope XVII-XIX vv. [French Yearbook: Francophone Tutors in Europe in the 17th-19th Centuries]. Moscow, 2011, pp. 127-149.
9 Otdel khraneniia dokumentov do 1917 goda (OKhD do 1917 g.) [Department of keeping documents before 1917]. State Budget Institution 'Central Archive of Moscow'. F. 459. Op. 1. D. 4660. L. 36 ob.
1° OKhD before 1917. F. 418. Op. 14. D. 248. L. 94-95.
11 Mordvinova N.N. Vospominaniia ob admirale Nikolae Semenoviche Mordvinove i o se-meistve ego (Zapiski ego docheri) [Memories of admiral Nikolai Semenovich Mordvinov and his family (notes of his daughter)]. Zapiski russkikh zhenshchin 18 - pervoi poloviny 19 veka; Sost., vstup.st. i komment. G.N. Moiseeva [Notes of Russian Women of the 18l - First Half of the 19th Century, Compilation, introductory article and comments by G.N. Moiseeva]. Moscow, 1990, pp. 393, 389-448.
12
nobody to judge" . As you can see, an Italian could become a French teacher whilst working in the family, where there would be a representative student brought up in accordance with the European educational traditions; and there was no one to check the true level of knowledge of the teacher.
Orel landowner Nikolai Gavrilovich Levshin (1788-1845), recalling his childhood as several changing family tutors and governesses, who taught him and his brothers and sisters the French and German languages, pointed out the Italian Rancy, the fourth in the list of the mentors in the provincial noble family. Per N.G. Levshin, Rancy was "brutish and slovenly. As it is now easy for me to judge my former teach-
13
ers, he probably arrived in Russia with canaries, a marmot or dogs" .
An Italian governess M-lle Grisel (Anna Fedorovna, as she was called in Russia) left completely different impressions, whilst working in the family of Prince Nicholas G. Viazemsky (1769-1846) and his second wife Sophia Yegorovna Panina, Behring through her first marriage (died in 1858). M-lle Grisel raised Princess Anne, one of Viazemskys daughters. The family appreciated the Italian governess, who after the early death of the pupil (Anna died at the age of sixteen) "remained for life on friendly terms"14 with Princess Sophia Yegorovna, the pupil's mother. The former governess later married Dr. Feyhtner, who lived in St. Petersburg (the Viazemskys, although they owned estates in the Kaluga province, preferred to live in Moscow), where she visited the younger sister of Prince Viazemsky Countess Maria Grigoriev-na Razumovskaya (1772-1865), known for her hospitality and passion for entertainments. It was the former Italian governess who was present at the death of M.G. Razumovskaya as evidenced by Maria Grigorievna Nazimova, grandniece of Razumovskaya and her namesake15.
Madame Manzoni, the governess of Boris Chicherin (1828-1904) (later he became a known lawyer, historian and a liberal social activist) also led her origin from the Mediterranean region. Per her pupil, "she descended from mixed nationalities; her mother, per her words, was a Spaniard, whereas her husband was an Italian. Originally she was, as it seemed, from Bearn or the Basque provinces, which were always spoken about with passion. After separating from her husband, she came to Russia to seek her fortune and settled in Tambov, in the private boarding school of Ms. Fits-
12 Zapiski Dmitriia Nikolaevicha Sverbeeva (1799-1826): v 2 t. [Notes of Dmitry Nikolaevich Sverbeev (1799-1826): in 2 vol. Vol. 1. Moscow, 1899, p. 52.
13 Domashnii pamiatnik Nikolaia Gavrilovicha Levshina [Home monument of Nikolai Gavrilovich Levshin]. Russkaia starina [Russian Antiquity], 1873, vol. 8, no. 12, p. 831.
14 Nazimova M. Babushka grafinia M.G. Razumovskaia. Stranichka iz vospominanii [Grandmother countess M.G. Razumovskaya. Page from memoirs]. Istoricheskii vestnik [Historical Herald], 1899, vol. 75, no. 3, p. 841.
15 Ibid.
tum, from where she moved to our place"16. The governess made a lasting impression on everyone in the large family of the Chicherins: "She was a middle-aged lady, very far from stupid, very brisk, with secular forms and habits and a dashing rider; besides being very busy and despite her rather thick nose disgracing her face. Showing off her long blond hair, she always wore unusual hairstyles; in the morning, she was at a lesson in curlers, and she piled her scythe in the form of a cone or a high tower, on which she would spend a lot of time; and it afflicted the maid who served her and did not know how to please her. She was extremely moody by character and had different quirks: she claimed that she could not see a toad and a watermelon without collapsing. When in summer, a watermelon was served at the table, she would jump up and run headlong into her room; therefore, she was pre-warned about this insidious fruit being served on a day. And during the evening walks, she took every jumping frog
17
for a toad and darted from side to side in violent fits." B.N. Chicherin noted it as a positive quality of an educator, especially her desire to awaken love and the habit of reading serious literature, as well as pettiness and fault-finding in her character. However, the overall evaluation of this governess was quite high: "She did not only teach us and make us learn the discipline; but despite her capricious nature she was a
good teacher. We soon got used to talking and even more importantly, to writing in
18
French correctly" . It should be noted that in the case with the Chicherins, the main subject of teaching was French.
It is obvious that such a small amount of evidence is not enough to fully assess the quality of the Italian teachers, but one can make a conclusion about presence of a small number of Italians (or other people from the Mediterranean region) in teaching profession.
Regarding teaching of the Italian language, it is worth paying attention to two remarkable facts. In 1832, a Swiss widow Eugénie Guichard, born Joly, applied to the testing committee of St. Petersburg University with a request to verify her knowledge and to grant permission to work as a home teacher, wishing to teach the Italian language along with French19. In 1833, a French Josephine Fusée de Voisenon made a
similar request to check her knowledge of French, German and Italian in the same
20
committee . However, per the documents, the knowledge of the governesses in the
Italian language was not checked; and each of them received a certificate for teaching
21
fewer languages than they claimed: Madame Guichard could teach French and Ma-
16 Chicherin B.N. Vospominaniia [Memoirs]. Rossiiskii arkhiv. Istoriia Otechestva v svide-tel'stvakh i dokumentakh XVIII-XX vv. [The Russian Archive. History of the Fatherland in Testimonies and Documents of the 18th-20th Centuries]. Moscow, 1999, p. 136.
17 Ibid, pp. 136-137.
19 Ibid, p. 138.
19 Tsentral'nyi gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv Sankt-Peterburga [The Central State Archive of Saint-Petersburg] (CSASPb). F. 14. Op. 24. D. 502.
20 CSASPb. F. 14. Op. 24. D. 635.
21 CSASPb. F. 14. Op. 24. D. 502. L. 4.
22
dame de Voisenon - German and the basics of the French language . It is unlikely that the lack of knowledge in the test of the Italian language could be considered accidental: in all other cases, as confirmed by the archival documents, all the languages declared by the applicants were checked. At the same time, in the testing committee there were lecturers of French, German and English; however, there were no lecturers of the Italian language there. It can be assumed that the Italian language was not planned to be checked.
Despite the apparent unpopularity of the Italian language, we can cite a few cases where the Italian language was included in the educational program for the children of nobility (mostly aristocrats) (as a matter of fact, in combination with other foreign languages). Italian could be mastered as an additional language in the learning process, but was not a major subject because this role was played by the French language at the time.
Thus, at the end of the 17th century, Prince Yuri Trubetzkoy (1668-1739), the famous statesman and later a senator, brought in I. Gagin, the teacher of French and Ital-
23
ian, from Italy to Moscow . It is known that it was in Italian that Prince conversed easily with foreigners, per the Dutch artist and ethnographer Cornelius de Bruijn
24
(1652-1727) , who visited Russia at that point. The Italian language (in addition to French and German) was the language of tuition for the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth (1709-61). Lady Rondo (Rondeau) wrote about Princess Elizabeth in 1733 that she speaks German, French and Italian, very cheerful, talking with everyone; in a
25
circle, as is thought of a well-bred woman . The Italian language was included in the curriculum of Countess Catherine Romanovna Vorontsova (1743/4-1810), Princess Dashkova through her marriage, later president of St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and her cousin, Countess Anna Mikhailovna Vorontsova (1743-69). As later the Princess herself would recall, "Uncle (meaning Chancellor Michail Illariono-vich Vorontsov (1714-67) - O.S.) spared no money to provide her daughter and me with the best teachers; and per the views of the time, we got great education; we spoke four languages, we were especially good in French, Italian, German and one
22 CSASPb. F. 14. Op. 24. D. 502. L. 5.
23 Kovrigina V.A. Nemetskaia sloboda Moskvy i ee zhiteli v kontse XVII - pervoi chetverti XVIII veka [The German suburb of Moscow and its inhabitants in the late 17th - first quarter of the 18th century]. Moscow, 1997, p. 355.
24 de Bruin K. Puteshestvie v Moscoviiu [Travel to Muscovy]. Rossiia XVIII v. glazami inos-
trantsev [Russia of the 18th Century through the Eyes of Foreigners]. Leningrad, 1989, pp. 52, 19188.25
25 Rondo. Pisima damy, prozhivshei neskol'ko let v Rossii, k ee priiatel'nitse v Angliiu [Letters from a lady who lived in Russia for several years, to her friend in England / transl. from English]. Bezvremen'e i vremenshchiki: Vospominaniia ob 'epokhe dvortsovykhperevorotov' (1720-e - 1760e gody) [Timelessness and Timekeepers: Memories of the 'Era of Palace Coups' (1720s - 60s), compilation, introductory article and comments by E. Anisimov]. Leningrad, 1991, p. 211.
ancient language. <...> We danced well and painted a little bit; besides, the fact that the two of us had pleasant appearance, both refined and with polite manners, it was not surprising that we were considered well-mannered girls"26.
In accordance with the text of the agreement, concluded on 5 May 1761 between the Frenchman de Pexonne, preceptor of nine-year old Yuri Neledinsky-Meletsky, later known as a writer, and the pupil's grandmother, the boy mastered Italian 'in case it is required', i.e. not mandatory (French was considered a compulsory subject of teaching at the time):
"I, the undersigned, undertake in the house of Her Excellency Anna Ivanovna Ne-ledinskaya-Meletskaya, to teach her grandson with all diligence, namely the French language, starting with the basics and spelling, arithmetic and similar decent sciences, such as modern and ancient history, geography and knowledge of the sphere, the Italian and the Latin languages, in case they are required. <...> At the end of each year, I will ask the friends of the family to test this young man, whose upbringing was entrusted to me, where his knowledge acquisition would be surveyed through the grace
27
that earn trust" .
Prince Pyotr Andreevich Vyazemsky (1792-1878), later a famous poet, mastered the Italian language and the Italian literature in combination with other languages. As Vyazemsky himself admitted, the largest footprint among his preceptors was left by the Frenchman Dandilli; and the whole of his "mind was brought up and educated in a French school." "I studied other foreign languages, worked with German, English and Italian literature at times, but they were all more or less of casual acquaintance
for me. My communication only strengthened when I started to familiarize myself
28
with the French literature, especially that belonging to the last century" .
A great number of languages were on offer, including Italian, Spanish, Greek and Turkish, according to the text of an advertisement placed in the 'Moscow News' newspaper in 1785 by Anton Le Maire who was offering to teach pupils; he "recently arrived in Moscow, from the town of Luneville in France." The offer extended to those "who wanted to get a place in a public school or a private house and included teaching of the following languages: French, German, Italian, Polish, English, Swedish, Spanish, Latin, Greek and Turkish; in addition, geography, history, mythology, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, higher mathematics, fortification, artil-
26 Zapiski kniagini Dashkovoi. Pis'ma sester Wilmot iz Rossii; Pod obshch. red. S.S. Dmitrieva [Notes of princess Dashkova. Letters from the sisters Wilmot from Russia; general ed. S.S. Dmi-triev]. Moscow, 1991, p. 41.
27 Neledinskii-Meletskii Y.A. Ocherki ego zhizni, bumagi i perepiska ego [Essays on his life, papers and his correspondence]. Russkii arkhiv [The Russian Archive], 1867, no. 1-12, col. 106107.
28 Viazemskii P.A. Avtobiographicheskoe vvedenie [Autobiographical introduction]. Viazems-kii P.A. Zapisnye knizhki [Notebooks, compilation, an introductory article, comments and name indications by D.P. Ivinsky]. Moscow, 1992, p. 315.
lery, chemistry, logic, metaphysics, law, navigation and hydraulics were on offer as well. Beyond all that, he was familiar with quite a different art, such as making the best china out of broken pottery (fayence), as well as other things belonging to chemistry. He could teach drawing, playing the piano, singing and surprisingly easy vaulting"29.
It is easy to imagine that the ignorant parents of the 18th century believed that all this abundance of knowledge and amount of skills sufficient for teaching could be taught by one single person; and in contrast to Le Maire, all other prospective teachers, who did not have such universalism, were considered unsuitable for the education of their offspring. A century later, at the time of re-publication of this advertisement, such an 'encyclopedic knowledge' was made a mockery of distrust and disregard on part of the ancestors, who could not distinguish people having the true knowledge from those who just claimed to have it. The teaching opportunities of the tutor-emigrant Ripomonti working for years in the family of the Nikolevs were much more realistic: he raised their youngest son, few daughters and their maid Elizabeth Yakov-leva, who lived in the family, teaching all of them French and Italian, as well as "other sciences, and even religion. He observed their morality, worked and played with
them"30.
In the advertisement of "a teacher knowing a lot", that is Anton Le Maire, there were no doubts that someone could speak several foreign languages (people can be polyglots in the long run!); but what he also claimed was teaching an unthinkably large number of arts and sciences. Marta Wilmot, the guest in a house of Princess E.R. Dashkova in 1803-08, wrote about Baroness Prayzer, nee Patten, who was an example of the polyglot governess: "Her grandfather was, in my opinion, a peer and supporter of the Stuart dynasty. Baroness Prayzer seems to be extremely ugly and cutesy, but it is only the first impression. After talking to her for a few minutes, you realize that she is extremely clever, with subtle feelings, soulful, capable of making correct judgments about all women (all these qualities were evident even during a short visit). In addition, it turned out that she was fluent in eight languages: English, French, Italian, German, Russian, Finnish, Dutch and on top of that all Latin; and of course, because of that, the very first impression would be replaced by a feeling of admiration and respect. Baroness Prayzer due to unfortunate circumstances had to
31
serve as a governess to two or three families" . However, we do not know whether Baroness Prayzer really taught all the above-mentioned languages, or the parents of
29 Mnogoznaiushchii uchitel'-inostranets. 'Moskovskie vedomosti' 1785 g. [A knowledgeable foreign teacher. Moskovskie Vedomosti, 1785]. Russkaia starina [Russian Antiquity], 1887, vol. 54, no. 4, p. 240.
30 Features of an old aristocratic life. Memories of Marya Sergeevna Nikoleva. The Russian Archive, 1893. Book 3, no. 9, p. 116.
31 Zapiski kniagini Dashkovoi. Pis'ma sester Wilmot iz Rossii; Pod obshch. red. S.S. Dmitrieva [Notes of princess Dashkova. Letters from the sisters Wilmot from Russia; general ed. S.S. Dmi-triev]. Moscow, 1991, pp. 393-394.
her students were limited to traditional French only, or at least English or German (which is much more likely).
Italian was among those languages, which the Englishwoman Elizabeth Stephens (died in 1816) spoke. In 1790, a well-known 'Angloman' Andrei Samborskii, a former confessor at the Russian Embassy in Britain and the spiritual mentor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Constantine Pavlovich (as well as their English teacher) placed Mrs. Stephens as a governess in the house of Countess Catherine Shuvalova (1743-1816), an influential court Mistress, to assist her youngest daughter Alexandra
32
(1775-1847). Elizabeth was a wonderful musician, a harpist and a singer , but for the Shuvalovs family her knowledge of the French language and fine manners were of main interest.
Italian (along with French and German) was one of the subjects that was ready to be taught by another musician and singer Charlotte Moreau de la Meltiere (died in 1854), a French writer and translator from Russian, who was familiar with V.A. Zhu-
33
kovsky from Muratovo, the estate of his half-sister E.A. Protasova . Madame Moreau was the governess of sisters Tuchkovs, Natalia (1829-1913) and Helena (182771), in 1840 in Moscow. However, in this case, only the French language was claimed to be taught by the governess, about whom her pupil Natalia Tuchkova recalled as follows: Madame Moreau de la Meltiere was 'cunning and a great talker'; however, she was bored with the children and "preferred talking with the older members of the family, especially with my father, who knew French to perfection. <...> When my father was present, she would call us 'ces pauvres petits anges'; and in his absence, she would not pay any attention to us whatsoever"34.
Under the influence of the studied languages, reading foreign books to the children of nobility, a multilayered picture of the world was shaped, including parts specific to different cultures. The most obvious result was the process when languages mixed in the verbal communication. Thus, one of the guests in the home of Princess Dashkova, a British Katherine Wilmot noted that over the years, for the princess it was "of no difference - whether to speak French, Russian or English; and she constantly mixes the languages in the same sentence. The Princess also speaks German and Italian very well, but then her fuzzy pronunciation makes it impossible to enjoy
32 Lukovskaia D.I., Grechishkin S.S., Morozov V.I. M.M. Speranskii: kratkii ocherk zhizni i deiatel'nosti [M.M Speransky: a brief sketch of his life and activity]. M.M. Speranskii: Zhizn', tvor-chestvo, gosudarstvennaia deiatel'nost': (Sbornik statei) [M.M Speransky: life, work, public activity (collection of articles)]. St. Peterburg, 2000, pp. 3-66.
33 Pis'mo V.A. Zhukovskogo A.F. Voeikovu. 13 Fevr. 1814 g. [V.A. Zhukovsky - to A.F. Voeikov. 13 February 1814]. Russkii arkhiv [The Russian Archive], 1900, no. 9, p. 20.
34 Tuchkova-Ogareva N.A. Vospominaniia [Memories. Introductory article, edition and notes by S.A. Pereselenkov], 1929, pp. 35-37.
35
the conversation" . Having grown up with Italian, French and English home governesses and tutors, Anna Olenina, the daughter of President of the Academy of Arts A.N. Olenin, inserted words from different languages in her diary, depending on the plot to be described: "So she is forced to forget // To love, d'aimer, amar, liubit', // To be engaged in a garden // To plant cabbages 'in a row' // To run home costs // And raise your bird's house"36. The Family of the Count Buturlins, where several children were born during the period from 1794 to 1813, also demonstrated the diversity of foreign influences. Per Mikhail Dmitrievich Buturlin (1807-76), he and his sister Helen 'became British', "that remained forever; our older sisters survived with the remnants of their Frenchified (if I can say so) upbringing, with a small addition and mix-
37
ture of Italian" . Buturlin wrote about himself: "I was cosmopolitan in my education (mostly being an Englishman than anything else), wrote verses in English and Italian
38
quite easily, and was not good at speaking my own native language" . After spending his childhood in Italy, under the supervision of some British tutors, in 1830 he returned to Russia and joined the army - "I slowly began to understand my own, so to speak, enormity in surrounding me with the Russian elements, where I felt something like half-Italian and half-British, and often was ashamed of my cosmopolitanism and
39
poor knowledge of my native language and customs" .
The same cosmopolitan in education with a strong 'grafting' of Italian culture was Prince Alexander Nikitich Volkonsky (1811-78), the son of the famous princess Zi-naida Volkonskaya (1789-1862), who spent much of her life in Italy - she adopted Catholicism, and her villa in Rome was visited by many figures of the Russian culture. At the request of Z.A. Volkonskaya, a renowned French teacher working a lot in Russia, abbot Nicole (1758-1835)40 made up a plan of education for the young prince Volkonsky41. A detailed plan of training was designed for 12 years and involved
35 Zapiski kniagini Dashkovoi. Pis'ma sester Wilmot iz Rossii; Pod obshch.red. S.S. Dmitrieva [Notes of princess Dashkova. Letters from the sisters Wilmot from Russia; general ed. S.S. Dmi-triev]. Moscow, 1991, p. 296.
36 Olenina A.A. Dnevnik. Vospominaniia [A diary. Memories. Introductory article by V.M. Faybiso-vich. The text and comments are compiled and prepared by L.G. Agamalyan, V.M. Faybisovich, N.A. Kaza-kova, M.V. Arsentyeva]. St. Peterburg, 1999, p. 62.
37 Zapiski grafa Mikhaila Dmitrievicha Buturlina [Notes of count Mikhail Dmitrievich Buturlin]. Russ-kii arkhiv [The Russian archive], 1897. Book 1, no. 4, p. 633.
38 Zapiski grafa Mikhaila Dmitrievicha Buturlina [Notes of count Mikhail Dmitrievich Buturlin]. Russ-kii arkhiv [The Russian archive], 1897. Book 2, no. 6, p. 188.
39 Zapiski grafa Mikhaila Dmitrievicha Buturlina [Notes of count Mikhail Dmitrievich Buturlin]. Russ-kii arkhiv [The Russian archive], 1897. Book 2, no. 7, p. 345.
40 See more in detail: Notkina O.Yu. Abbat Nikol' - pervyi direktor Rishel'evskogo litseia. Biobibliogra-phicheskii ukazatel' [Abbot Nicol - the first director of Richelieu Lyceum. Bibliographic index]. Vestnik Odesskogo natsional'nogo universiteta [Bulletin of Odessa National University], 2007, vol. 12, no. 4, pp.96-107.
41 Zapiska abbata Nikolia o vospitanii molodogo kniazia A.N. Volkonskogo [Note of abbot Nicol on the education of young prince A.N. Volkonsky]. Russkii arkhiv [The Russian Archive], 1895. Book 1, no. 4, pp. 486-493.
studying classical languages and texts, modern languages, especially Russian and French, as well as (to a lesser extent) Italian, English and German. The educational program included studying of various sciences. To complete the training, a rich program of trips and visits to the main Italian cities (along with Germany and the UK) was offered for the family. Princess Volkonskaya monitored the implementation of this plan; the contemporaries believed that her son Alexander was growing to be a very educated man and had successfully served as a diplomat, later becoming an envoy (since 1858 - in Saxony, in 1860 - in Naples, and in 1862 - in Spain). His interest in culture, especially Italian, manifested itself in collecting works of art and then writing a book "Rome and Italy of medieval and modern times, in historical, moral
42
and artistic relations" .
In the cosmopolitan spirit, with long periods of staying abroad, was the upbringing of Olga Nikolaevna Smirnova (1834-93), the daughter of the well-known beauty Alexandra Osipovna Smirnova (nee Rosset) (1809-82), who knew Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev and other Russian writers very closely. Educated by an Englishwoman Mary Overback, Olga Smirnova read in English when she was five, and "learned to write in Italian earlier than in Russian"43, later mastering the Spanish language.
The knowledge of Italian by nobleman and especially noble girls could be useful if they were interested in music: the most popular songs had to be performed in Italian as they were written, and the most visited opera houses in Russia for a long time were the ones where Italian troupes performed, famous for performing operas of Italian composers. Whereas as home teachers Italians were valued poorly, and their skills in the Italian language could not be checked even in the imperial universities (due to the absence of Italian language specialists); the future home teaches were obliged to be tested as there were no rivals to them in teaching music and drawing. Usually, people from the Mediterranean area were specifically musical and gave their pupils lessons of music by using songs of their homeland and the works of Italian composers. Praskoviia Nikolaevna Tatlina (1808-99) proudly recalled that her daughter received her upbringing in the family of a general - boss of her husband, due to her special abilities; and for that purpose, the family invited a 'singing' teacher from Italy
42 Volkonskii A.N. Rim i Italiia srednikh i noveishikh vremen, v istoricheskom, nravstvennom i khudozhestvennom otnosheniiakh [Rome and Italy of Middle Ages and contemporary history in historical, moral and artistic relations]. Collection of Books by A. Volkonsky, Member of Rimsk. Ar-kadsk. Academy. Parts 1-2. Moscow. 1845, 2 volumes.
43 Smirnova A.O. Zapiski, dnevniki, vospominaniia, pis'ma [Notes, diaries, memoirs, letters. Ed. M.A. Tsiavlovskii]. Moscow, 1929, p. 367.
as a governess. Tatlina's daughter received excellent musical education thanks to this
44
governess .
The images of beautiful Mediterranean countries were presented during the drawing lessons, when the children tried to portray the bright southern landscape, so different from the more modest images of Russian nature. Fascinating stories about wonderful southern countries looked like incredible contrast and fiction against the background of the Russian cold climate. Even the tutors and governesses from other countries, having an experience of living in Italy, were acutely homesick in Russia, longing for the heat, the Sun and the bright colors of Italy. The short summer heat in Russia resembled sunny Italy, as well as the noise of the wind outside the estate near Moscow reminded them of the sound of waves in the Italian Lerici. Thus, Claire Clairmont (1798-1879), an Englishwoman, stepsister of Mary Shelley and Byron's former lover, in the 1820s worked as a governess in Russia. On 16 May 1825 she recorded in her diary: "No rough wind, the air was soft and balmy as in Italy. The weather was truly delightful"45. On 21 May, a new nostalgic entry was added: "I sat at my window this morning, and listened with melancholy pleasure to the sound of the wind among the neighboring trees - it recalled to my mind the breaking waves upon the shores of Lerici"46. We hear the same longing for Italy in the letters of Claire: "and the few traces of beauty the trackless wilds, which are spread all over Russia, afford, send my soul, on the wings of a thousand of desires, back to the rich,
47
luxurious bosom of Italy" .
Assessing the extent of foreign influences and trying to isolate the Mediterranean component in them, it is helpful to listen to the opinion of the French tutor in the family of general-in-chief N.I. Saltykov Ch. Masson (1762-1807), who wrote that Russian noblemen "really had a great ability to blend in opinions, morals, manners, and language with other nations. They would be frivolous, as the former French petit-maîtres, would go crazy with the music as any Italian, would be judicious as any German, would be original as an Englishman, low as a slave and as proud as a Republican. They would change tastes and nature as easily as fashion, and of course, this physical and mental flexibility would be their 'hallmark'. <...> Russians generally like to learn and respect foreigners, who are hated only by uneducated and those
48
enviously competing with themselves" . As one can see, per Masson, musicality was
44 Vospominaniia Praskov'i Nikolaevny Tatlinoi [Memories of Praskovia Nikolaevna Tatlina (1812-54)]. Russkii arkhiv [The Russian Archive], 1899, vol. III, no. 10, p. 200.
45 The Journals of Claire Clairmont. 1814-27. Ed. by M.K. Stocking. Cambridge, 1968, p. 310.
47 Ibid. P. 314.
47 Claire Clairmont to Jane Williams. 29 April 1825. The Clairmont Correspondence: Letters of Claire Clairmont, Charles Clairmont and Fanny Imlay Godwin; ed. by Marion Kingston Stocking. Vol.1. 1808-1834. Baltimore & London, 1995, p. 221.
48 Masson Ch. Sekretnye zapiski o Rossii vremeni tsarstvovaniia Ekateriny II i Pavla I. Nabli-udeniia frantsuza, zhivshego pri dvore, o pridvornykh nravakh, demonstriruiushthie nezauriadnuiu nabliudatelnost' i osvedomlennost' avtora. Moscow, 1996, p. 137.
a characteristic feature of Italian influence; and any governess speaking the Italian language, along with other languages, would most often be an excellent musician, as discussed in the above-mentioned examples.
Italian and Spanish tutors used the idea of traditional costumes of their homeland for children's masquerades. The aforementioned governess of the Chicherins, Madame Manzoni, originally believed to be Basque, came up with an idea for the ball to make a quadrille of two pairs of children dressed as Basques in black jackets and tight-fitting short pants of nude color, strapped with a buckle under the knee; one boy - in red, the other - in blue silk stockings, with vests of the same color and knitted caps, both in tiny round nose shoes with pompons. The governess announced to the parents and their children that it was very beautiful49. And of course, it was pleasant for her to see the pupils in the national costumes of her home country, which she had left long ago, at least at the stage of trying on the said costumes and rehearsals, as the masquerade was cancelled at the very last moment.
The Mediterranean region could become the destination of a trip abroad (so called Grand Tour), which very often completed the education of a young man50. One of the first trips of this kind were made by the young Count Alexei Razumovsky, son of the last Ukrainian hetman Cyril Razumovsky. In the 1760s, he together with his father went to Italy under the supervision of his tutors, Strasbourg Professor and the poet Nicolai and a certain Frenchman Cronje51. Later, the Count A.K. Razumovsky (1748-1822) became minister of public education.
Many Russian noble families spent a lot of time abroad, and if the children were young, during such trips they were accompanied by tutors and governesses, as it was the case with Princess Trubetskaya, whose daughters were raised by M-lle Michel. A native of Metz, M-lle Michel took advantage of this long stay in Italy to learn the Italian language: any additional knowledge as well as experience of an educational activity and long-term stays abroad increased the competitiveness of a governess or a tutor. N.A. Tuchkova, one of M-lle Michel former pupils, wrote about this woman: she was "far from common nature: highly educated and well-read, she knew three languages and literature well; apart from French, she could also speak German and Eng-
49 Chicherin B.N. Vospominaniia [Memories], pp. 137-138.
50 See more details: Abramova I.I. Znachenie "Grand-tour" v obrazovanii i vospitanii dzhentl'mena [The meaning of the 'Grand Tour' in the education and upbringing of a gentleman]. Iaroslavskii pedagogicheskii vestnik [Yaroslavl Pedagogical Bulletin], 2006, no. 3, pp. 75-82; Grand Tour: Journey as a Cultural Phenomenon. Compiled and edited by V.P. Shestakov. St. Peterburg, 2012. 302 p.
51 See: Vasil'chikov A.A. Semeistvo Razumovskikh [Family of the Razumovskys]: in 5 vol. Vol. 2. St. Peterburg, 1880, pp. 11-12.
lish. <...> Being often in Italy with the family of Princess Trubetskaya, she studied Italian"52.
There might be of course a sadder option when a governess or a tutor accompanied their patient ill with tuberculosis to the coast of the warm Mediterranean Sea, away from the cold Russian winters, in the hope of a cure. The faith in the healing power of the Swiss wine grape, warm air French barns and soft coastal air of Italy has lived in people's minds for a long time. So many young Russian nobles ended their days during such visits, as their condition did not improve. Young princess Praskov'ia Vya-zemskaya (1817-1835), a daughter of the poet P. A. Vyazemsky, was among them: she died of a tuberculosis in Rome. She was buried at non-Catholic cemetery in Tes-
53
taccio which was opened specially in 1821 because of growth of number of death cases of non-Catolic foreigners. Praskov'ia Vyazemskaya's grave became the place of pilgrimage: it was visited by both princess Zinaida Volkonskaya and Nikolai Gogol. The cemetery in Livorno as there was an Orthodox Greek church became the other place of burial of the Russian noblemen who had died during their staying abroad54. The most famous example would be that of the heir to the Russian throne, Grand Duke Nicholas, son of Emperor Alexander II, who died in Nice in 1865. The Empress arrived with her younger children to visit her dying son, and they were all under the supervision of their governesses - and above all, the famous British nanny Kitty - Catherine Struton, in whose hands there were six imperial children during 22 years, starting with Nicholas, who saw his former nanny last, dying in Nice. After the death of Struton in 1891, Emperor Alexander III wrote to his son Nicholas: she lived "in our house for 46 years, of which 22 years in a row she was nursing the six of us."55 "All the brothers were very sad, and we carried her out of the Winter Pa<lace> to the English church, and then headed on to the Smolensk cemetery, where she was buried!"56)
Governess could accompany children of a mistress sick with tuberculosis in the same 'healing tour'. Thus, Alexandra Andreevna Voeikova (nee Protasova, (17951829)), dying of tuberculosis, visited almost all European resorts specializing in
52 Tuchkova-Ogareva N.A. Vospominaniia [Memoirs. Introductory article, edition and notes by S.A. Pereselenkov]. Leningrad, 1929, pp. 384-385.
53 See more details: Testaccio. Nekatolicheskoe kladbishche dlia inostrantsev v Rime. Alfavitnyi spisok russkikh zakhoronenii [Testaccio. Non-Catholic cemetery for foreigners in Rome. The alphabetical list of Russian burial places]. Seriia Rossiiskii nekropol'. Iss. 6. St. Petersburg, 1999.
54 Arkhimandrit Avgustin (Nikitin). Livorno. Neva, 2014, no. 10.
55 Pis'ma imperatora Aleksandra III k nasledniku tsesarevichu velikomu kniaziu Nikolaiu Alek-sandrovichu [Letters of Emperor Alexander III to the tsarevisch heir Grand duke Nikolai Aleksan-drovich]. Rossiiskii arkhiv. Istoriia Otechestva v svidetel'stvakh i dikumentakh XVIII-XX vv. [The Russian Archive. History of the Fatherland in Testimonies and Documents of the 18th-20th centuries. IX]. Moscow, 1999, p. 229.
56 Ibid.
57
treatment of the disease: she was in Germany, Switzerland and Italy . The children
58
were close to her, with the governess Miss Parish , accompanying their mother in her travels in search of a suitable environment - first, from one climatic zone to another; then from one locality to another; and after that, according to the latest medical recommendations - to the bunk in the barn, the warm and humid air of which was supposed to heal her lungs ... In the beautiful spa towns, about which Alexandra Voeikova dreamed in Russia, whilst sitting at home, as she was unable to get out; whereas the governess went to the dance, she made acquaintances and told the hostess about the sights. The city I "know by the stories of Miss Parish"59, - Voeikova complained to her faithful friend and uncle, the famous Russian poet Vasilii Zhu-kovsky. Feeling herself the mistress of the situation, whilst being the patient mistress herself, the governess tried to play the role of 'the first violin', setting the stage for love, inviting guests into the house, and praying for the ill Voeikova. Only in the letters to Zhukovsky that Voeikova could complain: "I have described to you our dance class, and the local wealthy M-r Stull, a former British tailor, who is now making 700 thousand in annual revenue. His nephew and heir would probably be the silly Schneidergesell (tailor apprentice - O.S.) that I have ever seen; he is an Englishman, and he got into the habit of going dancing, although he is already 25. Miss Parish, to whom he brought some English newspapers, melted like a small candle, especially when he talked a lot and flirted with her. She saw Kurmacher in him and can be ...! you never know. Miss Parish began to call him for a tea after the dance; I decided to tell her that I do not like this society - he is trivial and stupid. Then came the trouble!!! Miss Parish reproached me that I do not like him because he is her compatriot"60. So, in the Mediterranean resort, there was a change of roles: a dying mistress retreated into the background, whereas the governess would advance in the foreground.
Conclusion
Thus, family tutors and governesses, who came from the Mediterranean region, were an extremely small group among foreign teachers who worked in the Russian Empire; and the reviews of their professionalism were contradictory. The Italian language, however, could be included into the range of subjects, which the foreign teacher knew and could teach (not necessarily those Italian in origin). Several Russian nobles learnt Italian, but this language was not comparable to the extent with
57 A.A. Voeikova was buried in the Greek cemetery in Livorno.
58 Solov'ev N.V. Istoriia odnoi zhizni (A.A. Voeikova - "Svetlana") [The story of one life (A.A. Voeikova - 'Svetlana')]. Russkii bibliofil [Russian Bibliophile], 1915, no. 3, pp. 56-57.
59 Pis'mo A.A. Voeikovoi V.A. Zhukovskomu 8/20 oktiabria 1828 g. [Letter of A.A. Voeikova to V.A. Zhukovsky 8/20 October 1828]. Russkii bibliofil [Russian Bibliophile], 1915, no. 5, p. 31.
60 Pis'mo A.A. Voeikovoi V.A. Zhukovskomu 2 maia 1828 g. [Letter of A.A. Voeikova to V.A. Zhukovsky 2 May 1828]. Russkii bibliofil [Russian Bibliophile], 1915, no. 4, p. 46.
which French, German and English were widespread. A visit to the Mediterranean region could be part of an educational tour abroad carried out under the supervision of a family tutor. Warm Mediterranean countries were visited during a 'healing tour' - ill children were under the supervision of teachers; adult patients were accompanied by their children with foreign mentors and governesses. Thus, foreign family tutors and governesses were one of the channels of perception of the Mediterranean region for the Russian nobility. The Mediterranean region was reflected in the activities of foreigners who worked as home teachers in Russia in the art of sceneries and music.
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