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THE MAIN REASONS AND WAYS OF TERM COINAGE AND THEIR FEATURES
основные причины появления новых терминов и пути их
образования
А.А. КОСАРИНА, МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова(1), А.Е. ФЕДОТОВА, МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова(1)
alexa7979@yandex. ru
(1)ФГБОУ ВО МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова, филологический факультет 119991, Москва, Ленинские горы, ГСП-1, 1-й корпус гуманитарных факультетов
Политическая терминология и ее развитие представляет значительный интерес как для политиков, так и для филологов и непрофессионалов. Термины в данной науке могут быть созданы различными путями, и особенно важную роль в пополнении политической терминологии играет политическая лексика. Также для этого процесса значима общая лексика. Материалом данной статьи является ряд газет середины XIX- начала XXI века и тексты, предоставленные Корпусом Современного Американского Английского Языка. Источники взяты из непрофессионального дискурса, так как объект изучения - процесс создания терминов, а неинституциональный дискурс наиболее точно реагирует на любые изменения в языковой среде и отражает любую тенденцию, как только она проявляется в языке. Термины, созданные по причинам экстралингвистического характера, составляют 95% терминов изучаемого периода. Приблизительно 75% этих терминов основаны на единицах политической лексики. Термины, созданные по причинам лингвистического характера, составляют 5% терминов изучаемого периода. Почти все они основаны на единицах политической лексики. Причиной данной закономерности может служить тот факт, что единицы политической лексики уже известны профессионалам и более прозрачны семантически.
Ключевые слова: терминология, политическая терминология, политическая лексика, терминологизация, номенклатурные единицы
Terminology as a science whose main subjects are special lexical units [1, p. 9] appeared in the 1930 s on the basis of linguistics. Among those who made a significant contribution to it there are a lot of Russian and foreign scholars: D.S. Lotte, V.N. Komissarov, V.S Vinogradov, S.V. Grinev, V.M. Leichik, O.S. Akhmanova, N.B. Gvishiani, T.B. Nazarova, T.V. Shetle, V.P. Danilenko, A.G. Anisimova, H. Felber, T.B. Fitch, R. Freitag [1-9].
The sphere of political terminology has always been of a great interest both to professionals and to laymen. Politics is an essential part of our lives, thus, every linguistic change which occurs in it is not perceived as something strange and unknown, but, on the contrary, it is close to us, as it is connected with up-to-date events and pressing problems. Political terminology consists of different kinds of terms that were coined due to various reasons, which include extralinguistic and linguistic ones.
The research offers a classification of various reasons for term coinage, and a linguistic analysis of terms of various groups.
The main reasons for term coinage are: 1. Extralinguistic reasons
The first extralinguistic reason for term coinage is the appearance of new notions of extralinguistic reality. As the terms evolve together with these notions, the process of terminologi-zation generally takes a certain amount of time, and the source for the term is generally a unit of political lexis. The means and ways of term coinage on the basis of political vocabulary generally coincide with those on the basis of the general lexis. For example, a term can be coined through the narrowing of the meaning of a unit of political lexis (for example, quasi-state) or through morphological derivation (Balkan - balkanize -Balkanization); the differences include the ter-minologization of nomenclature units which involves not the narrowing but broadening of meaning.
For example, the unit Junta first denoted an individual government and was used as a nomenclature unit but then underwent the process of terminologization.
Junta - From the Spanish, and originally referring to the local councils established in 1808 to conduct the war against Napoleon, a junta is a deliberative council or committee. Now generally refers to any form of government
involving a committee which holds power as a body, and especially to forms of military government in which a ruling council of officers takes responsibility for all executive and legislative acts.
This unit appeared in the Spanish language by means of conversion (from Spanishjuntos - together) as a unit of nomenclature and defined a new notion of extralinguistic reality. The term juntawas coined when similar governments appeared. Generally, the term junta presupposes the name of the governed country, while the unit of nomenclature juntais generally used without it, yet sometimes the name of a country is omitted, if it is clear what unit is meant:
' The Cuban junta looks wistfully over the fence and wants to know what it is to get for this ten years' talk.' (The Coconino sun [microform]., July 30, 1898, Image 8)
'It is reported that Cordova with his escort, composed of 18 cavaliers has been captured, and it is added that the Junta of Biscay has received an official notice of the event'. (The North-Carolina standard., July 28, 1836, page 2)
'On the 26th inst., the constitution of 1812 was solemnly proclaimed and sworn to, and a new junta, or board of government established, the president of which was the same commandant of carabineers, who presided over the provisional one.' (Constantine republican., September 21, 1836, Image 2)
'Since the retreat of the rebels ajunta has been established here to maintain order till the arrival of the Queen's troops' (Sangamo Journal / Illinois State Journal, 14 January 1837)
'Diplomats and other observers say it is likely that the junta will attempt to hold on to power or at least heavily influence politics until a new monarch is established to succeed 87-year-oldKing Bhumibol Adulyadej—a transition that could still be years away'. (The Changing Face of Thailand's Junta, May 7, 2015)
Terms coined due to the development of political science generally have an opportunity to become full-fledged terms in a short period of time; the sources for such terms usually include general academic vocabulary or general language lexis.
For example, the term J-curve was first used by J. C. Davis in 1969 'to indicate graphically the de Toqueville notion that revolutions are more likely to take place when a period of prolonged rising expectations is followed by a period of sharp reversal. The frustration which is generated by the gap between expectations and gratifications is, at its most intolerable point, likely to result in violent regime change.' [1, p. 286].
These units can be viewed as terms since they were coined as such and function directly in the given science. Yet, such terms are generally used only by politicians if they are not popularized in connection with certain events and, thus, can be found only in academic writings. For example, the term j-curve defines a vital notion in the book by Ian Bremmer ' The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall':
'Developed states should instead work to create the conditions most favorable for a closed regime's safe passage through the least stable segment of the J curve — however and whenever the slide toward instability comes.' [12, p. 10].
The spelling of the term has not yet been standardized; the variants used in the dictionaries and texts of institutional and non-institutional discourse include J curve, J-curve, j-curve.
It can be considered as a term since it was coined as such and functions directly in the given science. Yet, such terms are generally used only by politicians if they are not popularized and, thus, can be found only in academic writings. The spelling of the term has not yet been standardized.
The third reason is the fact that some issues, though they have existed for centuries, have become especially important in the modern society. Such terms denote notions connected with military or social issues.
One of the examples of such terms is collateral damage. (Collateral damage - a term used in strategic analysis. It refers to the devastation of persons and property adjacent to a target. The issue of intentionality will often divide attacker and victim. Evidence that collateral damage has been deliberately caused may be used for propaganda purposes or to support allegations of war crimes. Recent developments in
international law have set out clear distinctions between legitimate targets. The 1977 Geneva Protocol to the 1949 Convention has thus identified civilian populations and civilian objects as illegitimate in this context. Intent and negligence will loom large in substantiating such charges against an attacker.
Recent developments in technology heralded as the revolution in military affairs means that it is now possible to attack targets with conventional precision guided weapons of great accuracy. The term collateral damage was widely used during the Persian Gulf War and it has accordingly passed into the lexicon of media analysis [10, p. 77].
This term is a vivid example of the process of terminologization. It originates from the general lexis. At the beginning of the 20 century collateral damage was used only about floods, fire, strikes and denoted primarily the additional damage to the property of people. The American newspapers from 1905 to 1910 used it in connection with water flows, strikes and road works:
'I believe they [the State] should merely receive plans, and when streams are to be taken decide on a minimum flow of water that must be maintained to protect the industries along the streams and also on the collateral damage and other questions involved (New-York tribune, February 23, 1905, p. 4)
' It would take volumes to even indicate what might be termed the collateral damage of strikes' (Daily public leader, May 19, 1905, p. 1)
1910 - ' the right of way for the roads shall be furnished by the counties, but if there are collateral damages in taking them such damages shall be borne by the state and county in the proportions provided for construction and maintenance cost' (The Evening Times, July 11, 1910, p.1)
It should be highlighted that The Evening times uses the unit in the plural form, while in the modern newspapers it is mostly used in the singular:
'Even the deployment of aerial reconnaissance or other technologies would not help to ascertain possible extent of collateral damage due to lack of distinction between combatants
and non-combatants. Under these circumstances principles of proportionality has no relevance' (the Island, April 19, 2015);
' In the course of trying to kill those that are trying to kill us, we are creating a distressing amount of collateral damage. The drones being used in Yemen and Pakistan are being controlled by the CIA with a fair amount of the actual flying, and triggering, done out of Nevada.' (Flathead bacon, May 1, 2015).
The unit collateral damage underwent the process of terminologization in the 1970s. One of the newspapers of this period reflects the changes in the use of this unit. An article by Ward Silver in 'The Ithacan' from October 12, 1972 'On Collateral Damage' reads: 'Most informative of all, however, have been the revelations by a Pentagon official (The New York Times October 10) that civilian casualties are by and large ignored by the Pentagon which instead concentrates on factory and munitions destruction and refers to such casualties as «collateral damage». This is, to say the least, appaling.'
It seems unusual to the author of the article that the phrase is used to denote civilian casualties and he puts it as a quotation, thus denoting that these are not his words. Yet this phrase was used in an official speech, which shows that the process has already begun and the specialists already widely use the coined term.
The term collateral damage has also undergone the process of determinologization, which resulted in the fact that the general language dictionary gives the following description of the given lexical unit:
Collateral damage - 1. deaths, injuries, and damage to the property of people who are not in the military that happens as a result of the fighting in a war;
2. injury inflicted on something other than an intended target [11].
Thus, the first meaning of the unit is the one that corresponds to the terminological definition.
Despite the fact that this term in the non-institutional discourse is often used metaphorically not only about military operations but about shooting in schools or cinemas, about pesticides
etc., it still has the meaning of damage and suffering:
' That fact is part of the collateral damage that our firstborn son Jeff's suicide left in its wake.' (The Journal News, April 23, 2015).
Terms coined due to reasons of extralin-guistic origin comprise 95 % of the terms coined in the 20th century. Approximately 75 % of these terms are coined on the basis of units of political lexis.
2. Linguisticreasons
The linguistic reasons for political term coinage include primarily those conditioned by the criteria and requirements of a term. Ideally, if a term does not meet the criteria and the requirements, it should be replaced by another term. However, in practice it is often inconvenient, since communication of specialists is based on the existing terminology. The source for term coinage in this case tends to be political lexis. For example, the terms jus ad bellum and jus in bello were replaced by a calque term just war.
Although these two terms still exist in the terminological system, they are not often used: the Corpus of Contemporary American English gives 411 contexts where just war is used and only 16 and 17 for jus in bello and jus ad bellum.
It should be also pointed out that 8 of 16 results contain both jus in bello and jus ad bellum for example:
<...>systematic detail that is part of the jus ad bellum and jus in bello categories.
<..> like the already existing jus ad bellum and jus in bello principles.
Furtermore, four of them also include the term just war:
The Just War tradition has its Jus ad bellum and Jus in bello principles;
<..> economic sanctions violate Just War principles of both jus ad bellum and jus in bello.
Jus ad bello and jus in bellum have a certain difference in meaning, but this difference is insignificant for the modern politics, so it was surrendered for briefness and semantic transparency.
Terms coined due to reasons of extralin-guistic origin comprise 5 % of the terms coined in the 20th century. Most of them were coined on the basis of political lexical units.
To conclude, approximately 80 % of the units of terminology coined in the 20th century are based upon political lexis. It can be accounted for primarily by the fact that such terms have a better semantic transparency and are already known to professionals.
Библиографический список
1. Гринев-Гриневич, С.В. Терминоведение / С.В. Гринев-Гриневич. - М.: Академия, 2008, C. 5-6.
2. Ахманова, О.С. О принципах и методах лингвистического исследования / О.С. Ахманова. - М.: МГУ, 1966. - С. 117.
3. Ахманова, О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов / О.С. Ахманова.- М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1969. - 608 с.
4. Бархударов, С.Г. О значении и задачах научных исследований в области терминологии / С.Г. Бархударов // Лингвистические проблемы научно-технической терминологии. - М.: Наука, 1970. - 231 с.
5. Винокур, Г.О. О некоторых явлениях словообразования в русской технической терминологии / Г.О. Винокур // Труды Моск. ин-та филос., лит., и ист.- 1939, Т. 5. -С. 3-54.
6. Гвишиани, Н.Б. Язык научного общения (вопросы методологии) / Н.Б. Гвишиани. - М.: Высшая школа, 1986. - 280 с.
7. Анисимова А.Г. Типология терминов англоязычного искусствоведения / А.Г. Анисимова. - М., 1994. - 20 с.
8. Гринштейн, А.С. Понятия и термины морфологии современного языка в лингвистическом освещении: авто-реф. дисс. ... канд. филол. наук / А.С. Гринштейн. - М., 1988. - 180 с.
9. Даниленко, В.П. Русская терминология. Опыт лингвистического описания / В.П. Даниленко. - М.: Наука, 1977. - 246 с.
10. Graham Evans, Jeffrey Newham, Dictionary of International Relations, London: Penguin Books, 1998.
11. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ collateral%20damage.
12. Ian Bremmer, The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall, New-York: Simon & Schuster, August 2006.
THE MAIN REASONS AND WAYS OF TERM COINAGE AND THEIR FEATURES
Kosarina A.A., Faculty of Philology, Lomonosov Moscow State University(1); Fedotova A.Ye., Faculty of Philology,
Lomonosov Moscow State University(1)
(1)Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Philology, Russia, 119991, Moscow, 1-51 Leninskiye Gory, GSP-1, 1st Corps
Humanitarian faculties
Political terminology is a sphere where terms can be coined by different ways, thus, for example, political lexis has always played an important role in the process of political term coinage. The words of general area of use are also of a great importance in the process. In order to find out the ways how political terms are coined and to classify them it is necessary to study political lexical units and general language ones, and to account for the difference between them. The material for study and analysis is a number of newspapers from the mid-19th to the 21st century and texts provided by the Corpus of Contemporary American English. The sources are taken from non-institutional discourse, since the object of study is the development of newly coined terms, and non-institutional discourse reflects every tendency as soon as it starts developing in the language. Terms which are coined due to reasons of extralinguistic origin comprise 95% of the terms coined in the 20th century. Approximately 75% of these terms are coined on the basis of units of political lexis. Terms coined due to reasons of linguistic origin comprise 5% of the terms coined in the 20th century. Most of them were coined on the basis of political lexical units. Approximately 80% of the units of terminology coined in the 20th century are based upon political lexis. It can be accounted for primarily by the fact that such terms have a better semantic transparency and are already known to professionals.
Keywords: political lexis, political terminology, term coinage, nomenclature units, terminology
References
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10. Graham Evans, Jeffrey Newham, Dictionary of International Relations, London: Penguin Books, 1998.
11. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collateral%20damage.
12. Ian Bremmer, The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall, New-York: Simon & Schuster, August 2006.
