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The western subregion of the Northern Caucasus is made up of the republics located to the west of North Ossetia: Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachaevo-Cherkessia, Adigey, as well as the Krasnodar Territory and Rostov Region. Despite the internal contradictions and involvement in international conflicts—the Georgian-Abkhazian and Georgian-Ossetian—they are relatively more stable. Nevertheless, there is still tension in the “bi-national” republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachaevo-Cherkessia, as well as in the Krasnodar Territory and its interrelations with Adigey.
C o n c l u s i o n
To sum up, it can be said that the current extremely difficult situation in the Northern Caucasus reflects the urgent processes and forms of Russia’s establishment as a federative state. But, in contrast to its central regions, where economic and social issues come to the forefront, in the southern areas they are significantly complicated by the challenges of nationalism, diversity of cultures, and the need to harmonize the revival of Islam and the European (Christian) model of Russia’s development. The experience of the past fifteen years has shown how difficult these problems are and confirmed that they cannot be resolved by force. So essentially new ways to regulate the crisis and conflict situations not only in the Northern Caucasus, but also in other similar regions of the world must be sought.
Rashad GUSEINOV
Ph.D. (Political Science), OSCE Office in Baku, head of the Press and Information Department
(Baku, Azerbaijan).
THE MAIN DEVELOPMENT TRENDS IN BILATERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN AZERBAIJAN AND ISRAEL
Abstract
This article looks at the issues involving Azerbaijani-Israeli relations: their sources and the main development vectors in interstate political and economic ties. It emphasizes that the relations between the two states and their people are unique and could serve as an example for many countries. But
the complicated geopolitical situation in the region is having a negative effect on the development of bilateral relations between Baku and Tel Aviv. Keeping in mind the above facts, the author attempts to identify the main trends in the further development of relations between these two countries.
THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
I n t r o d u c t i o n
To begin with, let us note that Jews have been living in Azerbaijan for more than two thousand years. After analyzing the historical relations between the two nations, the absence of anti-Semitism in Azerbaijan, as well as the relations developing between the Azerbaijani Republic and the State of Israel, experts from the Washington Institute for Near East Policy Soner Cagaptay and Alexander Murinson concluded that Azerbaijan is the best example of coexistence between Jews and Muslims in Eurasia.1
In recent years, official relations between the Azerbaijan Republic and Israel have been developing intensively. Tel Aviv is becoming one of Azerbaijan’s leading trade partners. In the political respect, some Israeli diplomats note that the good relations between the Azeris and Jews are a role model not only for the Muslim countries of Eurasia, but also for several developed states of the West where manifestations of anti-Semitism are becoming more frequent with each passing year. However, the geopolitical situation in the region does not allow Azerbaijan and Israel to make use of the existing potential to promote more productive cooperation.
So the main purpose of this article is to study the major obstacles hindering the development of bilateral relations, as well as draw up specific recommendations to enhance them.
Sources of Azerbaijani-Israeli Relations
Dozens of nationalities and religious confessions have peacefully coexisted in Azerbaijan for centuries. The high ethnic tolerance of the Azerbaijani people has been conducive to their successful integration and motivation, so the multi-century history of Jews living in the country should come as no surprise.2 This is precisely why Azerbaijan provided refuge for many Jews who were forced to leave Eastern and Western Europe due to anti-Semitism. It should be noted that in terms of compact residence of Jews, the Azerbaijan Republic occupies second place after Israel, which is the historical homeland of this nation. Some Israeli publications have been known to call Azerbaijan “a quiet haven for the Jewish community.” Every year, the U.S. State Department’s International Religious Freedom Report makes special note of the fact that Azerbaijan is a state that shows high tolerance toward all religions, including toward Jews.3
Approximately 20,000 Jews live in the settlement of Krasnaia Sloboda in the Guba Region, which has three synagogues and learning and cultural centers for teaching the local Jews. It should be emphasized that the Azerbaijan Republic is the only Muslim country in the world where a synagogue was built with the direct participation of the state.
There are three Jewish communities in present-day Azerbaijan: the mountain Jews, the Ashkenazi Jews, and the Georgian Jews. The largest is the community of mountain Jews, whose ancestors, according to some information, appeared here almost 15 centuries ago. According to historical data, after the Mazdakite movement in Iran was suppressed (end of 5th-beginning of 6th centuries AD), most of the Iranian Jews who supported it were exiled to the periphery of the empire—to the territory of present-day North Azerbaijan and South Daghestan. They spoke the southwestern dialect of the Persian language, which has been almost completely preserved in the mountain Jewish lan-
1 See: S. Cagaptay, A. Murinson, Good Relations between Azerbaijan and Israel: A Model for Other Muslim States of Eurasia, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Washington DC, 30 March, 2005.
2 See: M. Bekker, Evrei Azerbaidzhana: istoria i sovremennost’, Baku, 2000.
3 See: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90164.htm], 14 September, 2007.
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guage. But the mountain Jews themselves believe that they descended from the Jews who were taken captive by Assyrian czar Sargon after the seizure of Samaria in the 7th century BC and settled, according to the Book of Kings, in the Median mountains.4
In turn, some scientists believe that the first Ashkenazi Jews arrived in Baku in the 19th century, after Azerbaijan joined Russia under the Gulistan Peace Treaty signed between Iran and the Russian Empire in 1813. At that time, Georgian Jews appeared in Azerbaijan, and Russian sectarians, Subbot-niki and Geres, who preached Judaism, have also lived here since the 19th century. Beginning in 1870, due to the tempestuous development of the oil industry in Baku, the flow of Jews from the European part of Russia into North Azerbaijan dramatically increased. They were mainly representatives of the intelligentsia: engineers, physicians, lawyers, and teachers. “During the years of Soviet power, the number of Jews living in Azerbaijan increased threefold. After the Zionist organizations existing in the republic were routed in the 1920s, and during the repressions of the 1930s, most of the mountain Jewish intelligentsia was destroyed, a few strictly state-controlled synagogues were all that remained of the only Jewish institution in the country.”5
At the end of the 1980s, mass repatriation of the Azeri Jews began. Between 1989 and 2002, approximately 45,000 people emigrated to Israel from Azerbaijan, and more than 11,000 left to earn a living in Russia.6 Unfortunately, it is very difficult to determine the precise number of Jews currently living in Azerbaijan, since Jewry is passed down on the maternal side of the family, which makes it difficult to record. Even the Israeli embassy in Azerbaijan has only approximate data for 1999, whereby they give the figure of 40,000 Jews residing in the country.7 But the information of the leaders of religious communities greatly differs from that of the diplomatic mission. “According to their data, there are currently approximately 16,000 Jews living in Azerbaijan. There are about 11,000 mountain Jews. Six thousand of them live in Baku, and 3,600 reside in the other regions of the country, mainly in the cities of Sumgayit, Ganja, Oguz, and Geichai. For example,
1.300 mountain Jews live in the village of Privolnoe in the Jalilabad Region. There is a total of
4.300 Ashkenazi Jews in Azerbaijan, 3,500 of whom live in Baku. And there are only 600 Georgian Jews in Azerbaijan.”8 We will add that there are religious communities of mountain Jews in three Azerbaijani cities—Baku, Guba, and Oguz, which also have synagogues, as well as in the village of Privolnoe, where there is a prayer house. There are synagogues of Ashkenazi Jews and Georgian Jews in Baku.
The first Jewish organizations (the Alef youth club and the Jewish cultural center) appeared in Baku at the end of the 1980s during perestroika. In 1996, the Jewish organizations which function in Azerbaijan became more active. The Jewish Sokhnut Agency for Israel, the Joint American Jewish Distribution Committee, and Waad le-Atsala began implementing various programs, of which they were the initiators. Under the auspices of the Joint Committee, a charity organization called Hesed Gershon, a Jewish cultural center, the Hillel youth club, and a kindergarten were created. Sokhnut formed 22 groups of educational programs in Baku and other cities of Azerbaijan where Jews live: Sumgayit, Ganja, Guba, and Oguz. Four Jewish newspapers and information bulletins are published in Baku (all of them monthlies): Nash Izrail (published by the Jewish cultural center at the Israeli embassy in Azerbaijan), Or-Shelyanu (published by the Joint Jewish cultural center), Bashnya (published by the Hillel youth club), and Hesed Gershon (published by the charity center of the same name).9
4 See: I.Sh. Anisimov, Kavkazskie evrei-gortsy, Nauka Publishers, Moscow, 2002.
5 EVREIEVRAZII, Information-analytical publication of the Eurasian Jewish Congress, No. 3 (7), September-De-cember 2004.
6 Ibidem.
7 Statistics presented by the Israeli embassy in Azerbaijan.
8 EVREI EVRAZII, No. 3 (7), September-December 2004.
9 Ibidem.
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The fact that Azerbaijan is the only country in the post-Soviet expanse where Jews return after repatriation is of great significance. Taking into account the above, it is impossible not to agree with the experts of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy who say that the Azerbaijan Republic is a state that sets an example for other Muslim countries of Eurasia. While some Israeli diplomats believe that the republic is a role model not only for states where Islam is confessed, but also for other countries. In this respect, former Israeli ambassador to Azerbaijan Eitan Naeh noted: “Against the background of anti-Semitism in the world, the opposite picture is seen in Azerbaijan. While the number of cases of anti-Semitism is growing throughout the world, in Azerbaijan a synagogue was built at the state’s expense. This is a clear indication of tolerance.”10
First Steps toward Cooperation
The tolerant attitude toward the Jewish minority in Azerbaijan did not go unnoticed by official Tel Aviv and international Jewish organizations. Israel was one of the first states to recognize Azerbaijan’s independence, and on 6 April, 1992, diplomatic relations were established between the two countries, while in August 1993, the State of Israel opened its diplomatic representative office in Baku. But the Azerbaijani leadership has not yet taken a reciprocal step, although this topic is discussed quite frequently in the Azeri mass media. Many observers believe that by opening its embassy in Israel, official Baku will draw more investments from Israel and obtain even greater support from the Jewish lobby in the U.S. “First, Israel’s recognition even by such a small Muslim country as Azerbaijan means a lot for the Jewish lobby. Second, no one has any doubts about the power of the Israeli lobby on Capitol Hill in Washington, as well as in other financial and political circles of the world. Such powerful lobbyist organizations as AIPAC can change the opinion of American Congress. In our case, Azerbaijan can definitely count on an increase in military, economic, and political assistance from the U.S.,” writes the newspaper Ekho.11 This question was also discussed during the visit of the leaders of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations to Baku in February 2006.
Incidentally, the Israeli side, although it is talking about an Azerbaijani embassy being opened in Israel, understands the position of the Azerbaijani government, which has exerted much effort to preserve stability and peace in the region. According to the Israeli Foreign Ministry, official Tel Aviv understands Azerbaijan’s geopolitical position very well. By not opening its embassy or a diplomatic representative office in Israel, Baku is trying to maintain the political balance in the region. But it goes without saying that Azerbaijan is conducting an independent policy.12
However, the absence of an Azerbaijani embassy in Israel does not prevent their productive cooperation both in the bilateral format and within the framework of international organizations. During his visits to the U.S., the Azerbaijani president repeatedly met with representatives of American Jewish organizations: since 1993 he has met dozens of times with representatives of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations, as well as with Israeli officials.
The importance of cooperation between Israel and Azerbaijan in the military sphere must also be mentioned. For example, Jane’s Defense Weekly reported in 1996: In order to resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan is implementing a program aimed at upgrading its armed forces. With-
10 525 newspaper, 18 July, 2005 (in Azeri).
11 F. Ismailzade, “Otkrytie posol’stva Azerbaidzhana v Izraile: budushchie vygody ili segodniashnee spokoistvie,”
Ekho, 10 March, 2003.
12 ATV, weekly program Hefte Sonu, 13 November, 2005 (in Azeri).
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in the framework of this program, the Israeli military industry equipped the Azerbaijani army with the latest military aviation, artillery, and antitank and antipersonnel ammunition.13
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy also noted that Azerbaijan is closely cooperating with Israel and Turkey in intelligence and security. This includes information exchange and its careful study and analysis, which intensified even more after Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s visit to Baku. According to the Institute’s report, the Israeli power-related structures are holding special training sessions for representatives of the special services, intelligence, and security services accompanying the Azerbaijani president during his visits abroad.14 And Russia’s Nezavisimaia gazeta, when referring to the Lebanese newspaper Muari, ascertains the following: in 2001, as a result of secret talks between representatives of the Israeli and Azerbaijani military departments in Ankara, an agreement was reached on Tel Aviv delivering 100 Merkava tanks and 30 fighter planes to Baku.15
“The reasons for the unadvertised nature of relations with Israel lie in the fact that close ties with Israel irritate Azerbaijan’s southern neighbor Iran. The Iranian leadership told Azerbaijan several times that building relations with a Zionist regime, the enemy of the Islamic world, was fraught with immense problems for Azerbaijan. But the republic’s foreign ministry also stated in no uncertain words that establishing relations with other states was Azerbaijan’s own prerogative. Admittedly, the Iranian side justifies its relations with Armenia by saying it is observing its national interests. It should be admitted that official Tehran has recognized Armenia as an aggressor country and, during every session of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, along with the other member states of the OIC, it calls on Armenia to liberate the Azerbaijani territory it is occupying. Former Iranian ambassador to Azerbaijan Afshar Suleimani explains the reasons for active cooperation between Tehran and Erevan in his own way: “Today, not one state can spoil its relations with another state because of a third state. In Iran, everyone thought that Azerbaijan would lay its oil pipeline through Iran. But Baku did not do this. Our relations with Erevan could only relax if Azerbaijan ran its oil pipeline through Iran. This would also be cheaper for you.”16
Azerbaijan has no intention of spoiling its relations with Iran, which have deep historical and cultural ties. On the contrary, it is interested in intensifying its economic and political relations with Tehran. The frequent reciprocal visits of the heads of the two states and their officials in recent years are evidence of this. The volume of trade turnover is also increasing with each passing year and successful cooperation is continuing within the framework of international organizations. As for relations with Israel, it should be emphasized that they are not directed against any other state, particularly Iran. Moreover, the opinion of other countries of the Arab world that may not welcome official Baku’s policy toward Israel should also be taken into account.
However, the political situation around the Israel state is gradually changing. It has already established diplomatic relations with several Muslim countries, including Egypt, Jordan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Turkey’s viewpoint on this question is also of great significance. The visits of the leaders of the two countries no longer arouse a negative reaction in the Muslim world. There is an Egyptian and Jordanian embassy in Tel Aviv, but this does not stop them from productively communicating with other Arab states of the region. The conflict between Israel and Palestine, which has been going on for several decades now, is very problematic, and it is unlikely that this problem can be resolved in the near future. So official Baku should not wait for international disputes to be resolved, but think about national interests that can be realized through close contacts with Israel.
13 See: S. Cagaptay, A. Murinson, op. cit.
14 Ibidem.
15 See: “Izrail-Turtsiia-Azerbaijan... Neprivychnye konfiguratsii voznikaiushchikh aliansov mogut destabilizirovat’ obstanovku v Sodruzhestve,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, 4 December, 2001, available at [www.ng.ru].
16 Hesabat, No. 5 (42), 11 February, 2006, p. 22, available at [www.hesabat.az] (in Azeri).
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Cooperation in the Economic Sphere
Cooperation in the energy sphere is a priority of Azerbaijani-Israeli economic relations, since Tel Aviv is one of the main importers of Azerbaijani oil. As was noted above, Israel and the U.S. Jewish lobby have rendered comprehensive support to official Baku in implementing the project for building the main Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) export pipeline. Azerbaijan needed an oil pipeline for delivering oil and gas to the world market. In turn, Israel, which is experiencing great difficulties in purchasing energy resources, was interested in reliable delivery sources. Buying oil directly from Arab states did not seem feasible, and purchasing it through agents was too expensive. It can be seen from a geographical map of the world that the port of Ceyhan is located several hundreds of kilometers from Israel. So full-capacity operation of the BTC pipeline (50 million tons of oil a year) could meet the needs of Turkey’s and Israel’s oil refineries. The latter would receive a reliable source of energy supply that is in no way related to the political factor, and Azerbaijan would be able to deliver its energy resources to the countries of the Far East via the Israeli Eilat-Ashkelon oil pipeline.
The talks on this issue culminated in Israeli National Infrastructure Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer’s visit to Baku on 6-8 June, 2006, the main purpose of which was to participate in the oil and gas exhibition held every year in the Azerbaijani capital. During his speech at the opening ceremony of the exhibition, the Israeli minister noted the importance of energy resources for Israel. He also stressed that creating an oil transportation system from Azerbaijan through Georgia and Turkey to the Mediterranean will make it possible to deliver hydrocarbons to Israel, which will meet the country’s needs for fuel. This will also provide the opportunity to export Azerbaijani oil to the East, to China, and to other countries.
This topic was the leitmotif of the meeting with the Azerbaijani president. Along with the transportation of Azerbaijani oil to the Far Eastern countries via the Israeli pipeline, the sides also discussed the increase in purchases of Azerbaijani oil via the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline.17 We will note that until this time, Israel purchased two million tons of oil from Azerbaijan every year, which comprised one sixth of the country’s domestic consumption of this raw hydrocarbon.
The development of cooperation with Israel in agriculture, high technology, medicine, environmental protection, education, and communications fully meets Azerbaijan’s interests. “Israel with its developed economy could promote such a necessary influx of high technology and investments into different branches of the Azerbaijani economy, thus boosting the prosperity of our citizens.”18
One of the priority areas in the State Program of Socioeconomic Development of the Regions of the Azerbaijan Republic adopted on the initiative of the president of Azerbaijan is comprehensive development of the agrarian sector. Israel, as a world leader in agriculture, can help Azeri farmers to establish and raise private farms. Measures are already being undertaken in this direction on both sides; for example, in June 2005, a memorandum on cooperation in agriculture was signed between Azerbaijan and Israel.
This agreement immediately resulted in the first Azerbaijani-Israeli agricultural forum held in Baku and Guba on 20-22 February, 2006, the main purpose of which was for the business people of the two countries engaged in agriculture to become acquainted with each other and create conditions for a dialog. Approximately 60 people participated in the Baku forum, and more than 40 companies and businessmen attended the meeting in Guba. These efforts revealed that holding such forums is not enough for ensuring full mutually advantageous cooperation between Israeli and Azeri businessmen.
17 See: Sh. Kedmi, “Azeri President: Israel Could Help Us with Infrastructure, Health, Agriculture, Technology,” Haaretz, 7 June, 2006.
18 F. Ismailzade, op. cit.
There is a large gap between Israel and Azerbaijan in terms of agricultural business development. When Israeli businessmen talk about projects, they mean multi-million investments, while our businessmen cannot afford that. Azeri farmers do not have enough money to pay for the expensive equipment offered by Israeli companies. The same problem arose in relations between Israel and Turkish businessmen. One of the important decisions made by the Turkish side for attracting Israeli technology into the country was offering natural resources and cheap labor in exchange for high technology that ensured intensive development of the agricultural industry and production of cheaper products, which enjoyed competition on the world markets. We believe that this solution is also acceptable for Azerbaijan.
Despite all the difficulties, experts highly appraised the results of the business forum. According to them, this undertaking, which took almost three years to reach fruition, will promote the development of relations between the two countries. In addition to such forums, many Azeri specialists in agriculture are participating in international development courses held by the Israeli Foreign Ministry and Ministry of Agriculture. These courses are helping our specialists to improve their knowledge and assimilate the latest methods used in agriculture today.
Cooperation between the two countries is not only restricted to agriculture. Tourism is another sphere that can be profitable for both states. Turkey’s experience is worth noting in this respect: every year a large number of Israeli tourists visit Turkish resort towns. Azerbaijan, as we know, is famous for its beautiful natural and historical sites. In this respect, we think more attention should be focused on developing Azerbaijan’s potential in this sphere, which will make it possible to direct the flow of tourists to this country. Israeli experts in tourism recommend using Azerbaijan as a transit territory for trips to other countries. For example, when Baku-Delhi flights began, the flow of transit tourists from Israel to the Far Eastern countries increased.
As for goods turnover with Israel, today oil products account for the lion’s share of Azerbaijan’s export, while Israel’s export to Azerbaijan consists of telecommunication equipment and agricultural technology.
Table
Volume of Import and Export between Azerbaijan and Israel for 2002-2006
(in thou. dollars)19
Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Import 6,740.1 2,913.8 4,102.9 10,756.3 26,179.7
Export 154,057.4 138,112.8 32,378.2 195,062.7 684,828.9
Many contracts between Azerbaijani and Israeli businessmen are entered privately, but no official statements are made about this since many Azeri business people have close ties with Iranian businessmen. This is why they try not to publicize their contacts with Israeli business circles. The Jerusalem Post says that Azerbaijan accounts for a large amount of Israeli investments in projects on water use, mobile communication, regional development, and agriculture.20 For example, Israel has invested approximately $10 million in agriculture of Azerbaijan alone.21 Moreover, Israeli companies operate in Azerbaijan’s energy sector, in particular they have created a gas laboratory at the San-gachal terminal and opened a gas analysis enterprise.22 “And in July 2004, Israel made an important decision for the development of trade relations by exempting Azerbaijan from the need to obtain a
19 The table was compiled on the basis of data of the State Statistics Board of the Azerbaijan Republic (in thou. dollars), available at [www.azstat.gov].
20 See: S. Ser, “Circumventing Iran? Try Azerbaijan,” The Jerusalem Post, 10 June, 2005.
21 See: 525 newspaper, 18 July, 2005.
22 Ibidem.
license for the import of goods into Israel.”23 The Israeli government is sure that this decision will have a positive effect on the development of trade and economic relations with Azerbaijan.
Israel is interested in developing the non-oil sector of the Azerbaijani economy. Consequently, Israeli companies are striving to establish relations with Azeri companies in tourism, telecommunications, construction, infrastructure, and agriculture.
C o n c l u s i o n
Despite the existing obstacles in the development of Azerbaijani-Israeli political and economic relations, Israel is one of Azerbaijan’s main trade partners: according to the results of 2006, it occupies fourth place after Italy, Russia, and Turkey. This fact proves once more that external factors cannot influence Azerbaijan’s foreign policy. Despite the fact that oil occupies the lion’s share of the goods turnover between Baku and Tel Aviv, the sides are taking serious steps to develop cooperation in the non-oil sphere. In particular, in February 2007, an Agreement on the Protection and Encouragement of Bilateral Investments was signed between Azerbaijan and Israel, and in May 2007, a Memorandum on Cooperation in the Transport Sphere was signed. Relations are also developing between the Azeri and Jewish diasporas, the representatives of which have recently been carrying out joint undertakings in different countries of the world. For example, in 2006, representatives of the Azeri and Jewish diasporas reached an agreement on presenting information about the Khojaly genocide at Holocaust museums throughout the world.24
So to sum up, it can be noted that the relations between Israel and Azerbaijan in recent years have stable positive dynamics that encompass essentially all vectors of their bilateral relations.
23 N. Gulieva, “Izrail’ sdelal shag k narashchivaniiu tovarooborota s Azerbaidzhanom,” Ekho, 22 July, 2004.
24 See: “Posetiteli muzeev Kholokosta uznaiut o Khodzhalinskom genotside,” Zerkalo, No. 106, 14 June, 2006.
Sudaba ZEINALOVA
Ph.D. (Hist.), senior researcher at the Bakikhanov Institute of History,
Azerbaijani National Academy of Sciences (Baku, Azerbaijan).
AZERBAIJAN-GERMANY: COOPERATION VECTORS
Abstract
This article looks at cooperation between Azerbaijan and Germany in the-context of European integration and presents a brief overview of how the polit-
ical dialog, economic relations, and cultural ties between the Azerbaijan Republic and the Federative Republic of Germany have been developing over the past 15 years.
