CC BY
0THE FERGHANA VALLEY AT THE CROSSROADS OF THE
SILK ROAD
Hoshimov Hikmatulla
Senior researcher of Samarkand Institute of archaeology under Agency of Cultural Heritage, professor associate of Silk Road International University of Tourism and Cultural Heritage
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11216546
Annotation. The Fergana Valley is one of the largest cultural regions not only in Uzbekistan, but also in the whole of Central Asia. This article presents information from archaeological and Chinese written sources about ancient cities of the Fergana Valley, located on the Silk Road, such as Shurabashot, Mingtepa, Kuva, Balantepa, Oktepa, Munchoktepa and other archaeological sites.
Technology of silk production in China was kept in secret for a long time without spread. But possible to assume that silk production in the Ferghana Valley was developed under direct influence of the great silk road. Consequently, the Ferghana Valley along with Sogd, probably, even earlier - already in III-IV centuries became the centre of silk weaving. Silk weaving was formed on the base of ancient traditions and experience of many generations of local weavers.
Key words: Ferghana, Davan, Ershi, Mingtepa, Capital, Quva, Shahristan, Zoroastrianism, Buddhist temples, Heavenly horses.
Annotatsiya. Farg'ona vodiysi nafaqat O'zbekistonning, balki butun Markaziy Osiyoning engyirik madaniy mintaqalaridan biridir. Mazkur maqolada Ipakyo'lida joylashgan Farg'ona vodiysining qadimiy shaharlari haqida arxeologik va xitoy yozma manbalari orqali Sho'rabashot, Mingtepa, Quva, Balantepa, Oqtepa, Munchoqtepa kabi arxeologik yodgorliklar haqida ma'lumotlar keltirilgan.
Xitoyda ipak ishlab chiqarish texnologiyasi uzoq vaqt davomida sir saqlanmagan. Ammo Farg'ona vodiysida ipak ishlab chiqarish buyuk ipakyo'lining bevosita ta'siri ostida rivojlangan deb taxmin qilish mumkin. Binobarin, Farg'ona vodiysi So'g'd bilan birga, ehtimol undan ham oldinroq - III-IV asrlarda ipak to'qish markaziga aylangan. Ipak to'qish qadimgi urf-odatlar va mahalliy to'quvchilarning ko'p avlodlari tajribasi asosida shakllangan.
Kalit so'zlar: Ferg'ona, Davon, Ershi, Mingtepa, Poytaxt, Quva, Shahriston, Zoroastrizm, Budda ibodatxonasi, Samoviy otlar,
Аннотация. Ферганская долина - один из крупнейших культурных регионов не только Узбекистана, но и всей Центральной Азии. В этой статье представлена информация из археологических и китайских письменных источников о древних городах Ферганской долины, расположенных на Шелковом пути, таких как Шурабашат, Мингтепа, Кува, Балантепа, Октепа, Мунчоктепа и других археологических памятниках.
Технология производства шелка в Китае долгое время держалась в секрете, не распространяясь. Но можно предположить, что производство шелка в Ферганской долине развивалось под непосредственным влиянием великого шелкового пути. Следовательно, Ферганская долина вместе с Согдом, возможно, еще раньше - уже в III-IV веках стала центром шелкоткачества. Шелкоткачество формировалось на основе древних традиций и опыта многих поколений местных ткачей.
Ключевые слова: Фергана, Даван, Эрши, Мингтепе, Столица, Кува, Шахристан, Зароастризм, Буддийских храм, Небесные кони.
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes connecting China and the Far East with the Middle East and Europe. Established when the Han Dynasty in China officially opened trade with the West in 130 B.C., the Silk Road routes remained in use until 1453 A.D., when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with China and closed them. Although it's been nearly 600 years since the Silk Road has been used for international trade, the routes had a lasting impact on commerce, culture and history that resonates even today. The Ferghana Valley too was at the crossroads of the Silk Road.
The Fergana Valley, the pearl of Central Asia located in the upper stream of the Syrdarya River, is one of the paradisiacal parts of the East. By its geopolitical location, Fergana always took a special place in social and cultural life not only in Central Asia, but also in the whole world. Strategic and trade roads between the East and the West passed through the Fergana Valley and that is the reason why it always had attracted a special attention. From ancient times, the Valley was abundant in water, had many fertile lands and a favorable climate. That is why agriculture and cattle-breeding were simultaneously developed here in the plains and the mountainous foothills respectively. During the Antiquity period (4 th century BCE - 4th century CE) Fergana played an important role in the history of Central Asia. It was the period of the Davan Kingdom (4th century BCE - 3rd century CE), when agriculture and cattle breeding have achieved to high development. Agriculture was based on artificial irrigation.
At present, a dozen of large archeological monuments related to the Davan period have been already discovered, which, undoubtedly, were included into the list of towns mentioned in the Chinese sources. They are, in particular, Shurabashat (with area of 70 hectares, near Uzgen, Osh Province), Yangibazar (with area of 10 hectares, Naukat District), Kalamishtepa (with area of 15 hectares, eastern suburb of Central Fergana), Mingtepa (with area of 38 hectares, Andijan Province), Quva (with area of 12 hectares, Fergana Province), Balandtepa (with area of 9 hectares, Namangan Province), Uchkurgan I (with area of 24 hectares), Aktepa (with area of 12 hectares) and Kayvanat (with area of 15 hectares, Namangan Province). The formation of the Great Silk Road also coincides with the period of the development of this state. Fergana provided security, fodder, pack animals, interpreters and guides in that intercontinental trade from borders of the Eastern Sogd to the Chinese Empire of Tan epoch.
On the east suburbs of Marhamat (Andijan Province), the ruins of a site of an ancient settlement are located. Local population calls it «Mingtepa».
During the construction works of the Great Fergana Canal the site was visited by the members of the archaeological expedition under the guidance of M.E. Masson in 1939. Later in 1946-47 and in 1950 the Migntepa Site was explored by the members of the Pamir-Alay expedition under the guidance of A.N. Bernshtam. Y.A.
Zadneprovsky from the Russian Academy of Sciences worled here in 1973, 1986-87 and B.H. Matbabaev form the Uzbek Academy of Sciences studied this site in 2001. The site is one of the largest ancient settlements of Fergana which has area of around 300 hectares; it is distinguished by its rectangular shape, straight orientation towards north-south and by its thick fortress. According to the plan of the site made in 1950s by A.N. Bernshtam it is clear that it had two parts - inner and outer towns (Bershtam A.N., 1948, P.155-161). Currently only the inner town with its fortress is preserved. There are frequent towers - 20 on the western and eastern walls, 12 on the northern wall, and 6 on the southern (Бернштам А.Н., 1952. С. 222-230, рис. 89). They Gates on all four walls but the main gates were located on the south-western part of the settlement. The area surrounded by the walls includes several hills (in 1946-47 there were 16 of them). The
south-eastern part was more densely built-up. On the northern-western part close to the centre there was a big hill, hypothetically the citadel.
A part of the wall here was contoured from all sides. The wall thickness was 3,5 meters and its preserved height was 5,5 meters too. It was elevated by combo technique using mud-bricks and mud-blocks. The basis was made of mud-platform.
The tower was contoured from three sides. It is rectangular shape with sizes 18x9 sq. meters at the bottom and 18x6 sq. meters at the top. The tower overflows the limits of the defensive wall on 6,5 m. An intra tower room was visible in the middle of the tower (6,3x2,8). The walls of the room were plastered. Two-grain grater and some stones were laid on the floor. In the southern wall of the tower there was an aperture of a rectangular form (62x25 cm). Its bottom edge is at the level of 65 cm above the floor. It is not excluded, that the aperture was the loophole, edited at late reconstructions. The entrance to the inside room was not found. The northern part of the tower is still not completely excavated; it is combined in the base from the adobe blocks, in the top - from the brick (35x? x10? 37x28x8-10? 40x40x10 cm). During the cleanup of the towers and fortification some fragments of the ceramics with red engobe, as well as the fragments of modeled colored Shurabashat-type vessels and typical for this time spin were found.
Y.A. Zadneprovsky has carried out some works in 1973, when he could reveal a pottery complex from the lower and upper cultural layers. They were compared to the data of the 2nd-1st centuries BCE, and the upper layers were compared to the data of first centuries CE.
The excavation works were continued on two objects by B.H. Matbabaev in 1986-1987. On the western fortress wall an area between the 12th and the 13th towers and the 13 th tower (starting from south) itself were chosen for the excavations. The excavation area occupied the territory of the tower and northern and southern territories of the fortress.
According to Chinese sources, Dawan had 70 big and small towns. Only three names among them were marked: Ershi, Yuchen and Guyshan. The town of Ershi was the residence of the governor. Ancient authors have marked that well-known «heavenly horses» were breed in this town. The town consisted of two parts: internal and external. The site of the ancient settlement Mingtepa was identified with the town of Ershi, the capital of Ancient Fergana of the state Davan. Identification of Mingtepa with Ershi is accepted by the majority of researchers of Fergana and other specialists, who worked on the neighbor territories
Significant ceramic materials was collected during the works, which allows to date the complex, which existed long time, from III-II centuries B.C. to IV-V centuries A.D. Archeological excavations in Mingtepa gave the new information concerning the culture of the ancient Fergana of the period of Davan state. Powerful defensive walls with flank rectangular towers with internal rooms have enclosed the site of the ancient settlement; the citadel had a massive platform -stylobate with the height about 5 m. These data have very important value, since the territory of the site of ancient settlement Mingtepa is assigned by many researchers as the capital town of ancient Fergana Empires.
According to the above-stated Chinese source, Ershi was in the east part of Fergana Valley, a powerful fortification system (internal and external wall) was found in Mingtepa during the period of Chinese expansion to Fergana i.e. dated II century B.C; in the third, such large monument as Mingtepa (300 hectares) with powerful cultural layers is not revealed in the Valley any more. It is necessary to add also, that the images dated II-I century A.D. glorified by Chinese as "heavenly horses» have been marked on the rock nearby to Mingtepa
The Arab scholar and traveler of the 10th century Ibn Haukal wrote "Ferghana is the name of a country, which is a big province with rich towns and villages. Its capital is Aksiket. There is a citadel located in the shahristan and there is a rabad; the palace of the ruler and the prison are in the citadel, whereas the congregational mosque is outside of it... The town is about one third of a farsah long. There is running water and numerous ponds in shahristan and rabid. All gates of the rabad lead to deep gardens with running channels.".
The ruins of the capital town Akhsiket are located on the right bank of the Syrdarya River, on a place called Eski Akhsi, in 25 km towards south-west from the modern city of Namangan, near the Gulqishlaq and Shahand villages. The site was first mentioned in the work of a Hungarian ethnographer Uifalvy. Later the settlement was visited and studied by captain Brjanov A.I., orientalist Veselovski N.I., historian Kastanje I.A. and archaeologists Masson M.E., Bernshtam A.N., Chulanov Yu.T., Gulamov Ya.G., Akhrarov I., etc.
Thus, Akhsiket like all other large towns of Central Asia consisted of three parts - citadel, shahristan and a wide rabad. The territory of the town begun to be used in not later than the 10th-9th centuries BCE. At the end of the 3rd-beginning of the 2nd centuries here on the place of the present Eski Akhsi site a fortified town with area of more than 40 hectares was established. The territory of the early town occupied the area of the citadel, two shahristans; starting from the 1st century BCE it covered the area of the western part of the medieval suburb-rabad.
The upper part was surrounded by thick fortress walls which had eight constructional periods characterizing the main stages of the life of citadel. The main part of the citadel was destroyed by Syrdarya
The three capital towns of Ferghana (Dawan) - Ershi, Yuchen, and Guyshuan are mentioned in the Chinese sources like "Shiji and Khanshu of the 2nd-1st centuries BCE - 1st century CE. Localization of these towns was a topic of numerous studies. A lot of attention was given to localizing the capital town of Ershi. One group of researchers located it in Uratube, others - in Kokand. However the most scholars accepted the localization by A.N. Bernshtam on the place of the Marhamat settlement.
During the second half of the 12th-beginning of the 13th centuries the fortress walls of the town were completely renovated, particularly, a whole fortification system with a military arsenalgarrison was created on the citadel. The complete termination of the town life at Akshiket is related to the Mongol invasion, after which it was appeared on a new place called Yangi Akhsi (New Akhsi).
Therd old city is Quva. The site of ancient settlement of Quva is located in the territory of the same regional center of the Fergana Province. It started to attract the attention in the beginning of the 20th century. Its sizes, as well as great number of ancient ceramics and other archeological objects on the surface of the monument allowed comparing this hill, named by local inhabitances as a Qayqubadtepa, with the town of Qubo, cited by Arabic authors of the 10th century.
Written sources covered of the history of Quva extremely avariciously. According to the Arabic geographers, Qubo was one of the largest towns of the Valley in the 10th century. Some authors (Al-Muqaddasi) considered Qubo even larger and more beautiful than the capital- of Fergana - Akhsiket.
Especially the outskirts of Quva to the north from shahristan have been intensively excavated in those years. Within 1958-1959 a Buddhist temple and sanctuary was discovered at this place. Internal planning of rooms was traced well and its plan has been restored completely. This complex functioned in the 7th century and has been destroyed at the beginning of the 8th
century. Other finds shows that Buddhism was not the unique religious doctrine of Quva people. These finds were connected with Zoroastrianism, as well as Buddhist temples are dated in the 6th
- 8th centuries and testify that at that time at least the representatives of two religious communities lived in Quva. In addition, there was a Christian cross, which was found during the excavation of 1997 at the southeast corner of shahristan of ancient Quva. According to some circumstances accompanying its finding, it can be dated no later than the 10th century.
Especially the outskirts of Quva to the north from shahristan have been intensively excavated in those years. Within 1958-1959 a Buddhist temple and sanctuary was discovered at this place. Internal planning of rooms was traced well and its plan has been restored completely. This complex functioned in the 7th century and has been destroyed at the beginning of the 8th century. Other finds shows that Buddhism was not the unique religious doctrine of Quva people. These finds were connected with Zoroastrianism, as well as Buddhist temples are dated in the 6th
- 8th centuries and testify that at that time at least the representatives of two religious communities lived in Quva. In addition, there was a Christian cross, which was found during the excavation of 1997 at the southeast corner of shahristan of ancient Quva. According to some circumstances accompanying its finding, it can be dated no later than the 10th century.
The first large-scale archeological excavations on the site of this ancient settlement were conducted by the Institute of History and Archeology of the Academy of Science of the Republic of Uzbekistan from 1956 to 1970 under the general guidance of academician Yahya Gulyamov. Scientists worked in various parts of the town. Excavations confirmed the data of the written sources, that at the 10th century the main political unit of the town, Ark (a citadel of the town) had lost its value, and its walls have been destroyed. The town, regardless of some scientists' opinion about its gradual fading, still continued to function as a large political and cultural center till the beginning of the 13th entury. Then it was completely destroyed, evidently, by the Mongol conquerors.
According to the historical sources of the beginning of the 8th century the deputy of the Fergana governor ruled in Qubo was known. The presence of a mint in the town also indicates the important political and economic status of Quva. The fact that the coins were minted in Quva in the 10th century was already revealed at the end of 1950s. O.I. Smirnova, who investigated Quva coins, considers that they were mint in the 7th - 8th centuries in Quva itself. Hence, the town had enough political power at that time.
The outstanding discovery of underground crypts taking place in 1988 at Munchaktepa having rather rich burial goods produced inestimable materials for research of not only the burial cult of ancient population of the Ferghana valley, but also of the history of Central Asian cloths. The burials in underground crypts had cloths and grave goods considering age, social status and sex of the dead. Big number and unique preservation of grave goods give possibility to reconstruct the burial rite of the Ferghana population in V-VIII centuries.
The Munchaktepa burial ground is linked to the site from the North. Since 1987 B.Kh. Matbabaev has been carrying out archaeological works in that area. For this working period (19871993) the following types of burial constructions were revealed at the burial ground: single grave (pit graves, niche grave), vault graves .
Materials demonstrate that ossuary burials with corresponding ceremony were also practiced in the Ferghana valley. It somehow resolves doubts about religious beliefs of Ferghana population in period of its subjection to Turkic Kaganate.
Unique burial constructions in the shape of underground vaults cut in sand-loess sediments were disclosed at Munchaktepa II burial ground. They were placed as a chain along West-East line in oblong natural hill Eight vaults were disclosed. Underground vaults can be divided into two groups: small ones with 1-4 buried skeletons (vaults 2, 3 and 4) and large ones (6 square meters and more) with even 50 buried skeletons. In construction there are clear three parts such as entrance ground, corridor (dromos) and burial chamber
Single burials. 14 single burials were disclosed at Munchaktepa I. The surface layers were destroyed, that was why the issue of surface constructions (barrow, burial mound, etc.) remained and still remains open. Burial constructions are divided into two types: pit graves (nine of them were disclosed) and niche graves (five of them were disclosed). The ground graves are not deep and northern orientation (heads orientated to the North, North-West and North-East) is prevailed.
The grave goods were goods and objects made of ceramics, stone, bone, wood, leather, cloth, cane, iron and copper. It should be noted that grave goods reflect ritual part of ceremony. That is why taking into account their specificity we have divided them into several groups:
Ceramic goods ;
Household goods;
Adornments and cloths;
Arms.
Adornments were found in underground vaults in big number. They are bracelets, earrings, rings, seal-rings, adornments on breast and beads. The latter ones are the most numerous among them. Beads were made of the following groups of materials:
Multicoloured glass;
Local minerals (quartz, dolomite, marble, granite, serpentine and chalk rocks);
Semi-precious and precious stones (cornelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise and rock crystal);
Animals' bones and fruit stones;
Bronze, wood and ceramics.
contemporary centres of silk production in the Ferghana valley (Andijan, Namangan and Margilan) appeared not on an empty place. Disclosed big collections of silk cloth in Munchaktepa burial ground indicate that Ferghana population basing on local silk and using Chinese technology produced their own silk cloth deep rooted in history. So as the Ferghana valley is the closest area to the motherland of silk - China, then, obviously, tradition of silk weaving appeared in the valley much earlier than in other areas. Silk was spread all over Central Asia through Xinjiang (Eastern Turkestan) since the mid-II millennium BCE. As a result silk was imported for Central Asian markets as an article of trade.
Remains of leather goods on waist and legs below knees were disclosed in male and female burials (A-6 (A-6), B-3 (E-3), D-1 (r-1), E-9 (£-9) and E-12 (£-12)). Definitely, they are remains of leather belt and also footwear. The footwear was, obviously, soft boots without heels and prototype of modern makhsi - massi (ichigi) of Uzbeks in the Ferghana valley, Khorezm area, etc. The evidence of it is wooden boot-tree for footwear production. It was cut by knife out entire piece of wood; it has convex basis, obtuse toe and round-convex back reminding shape of ichigi. Reverse of foot-tree is even. It is 27,5sm long and 8sm wide, what is approximately corresponded to 42-43 modern size. It is thoroughly polished and very slick. An iron knife with large massive wooden handle was disclosed near foot-tree. Perhaps, besides soft boots there were different types of footwear. It is possible to judge about it according to remains of leather and ropes made of thick threads (laces?). The latter ones were used to tie footwear somehow analogue to modern boots.
The soft boots - ichigi, obviously were the most fashionable type in the V-VIII centuries in Central Asia. The soft boots - ichigi were known mainly according to murals till recent time. The analogue boots made of leather were disclosed in Sogdian site of Kafyrkala and among collection of finds from Mug Mountain in Sogd and also in Tashkent oasis. In the Ferghana Valley at Karabulak Ju.D. Baruzdin disclosed boots without heels, i.e.
Fabric remains were found in 25 cases: in 20 interments of vault 5, vaults 1, 3 and 9 and in single burials. Fabric was basically cotton, silk and wool. Naturally, silk was better preserved than cotton fabric and composed the majority of fabric finds from burials. The disclosed fabric is remains of clothes, face veils, head-dresses and ritual "pillows". The main part of clothes was made of fabric dyed with greyish black paint. Indigo was also used as dyeing material.
According to the written sources the markets were full of Chinese goods in late II century BCE (Lubo-Lesnichenko E.I., 1994, p. 54). However, technology of silk production in China was kept in secret for a long time without spread. Taking into account this fact it is possible to assume that silk production in the Ferghana Valley was developed under direct influence of the great neibour — China at the begging of Common Era. Consequently, the Ferghana Valley along with Sogd, probably, even earlier — already in III-IV centuries became the centre of silk weaving. Silk weaving was formed on the base of ancient traditions and experience of many generations of local weavers. All given above is evidence of existence of weaving of high quality in ancient Ferghana valley.
The Fergana Valley is one of the largest cultural regions not only in Uzbekistan but also in the entire Central Asia. Like in Bactria, Sogd, Chach and other cultural regions agricultural and urban developments as well as the earliest state structures have been developed here from the most ancient times. Since still the earliest monuments of sedentary culture have not been found in Fergana, scholars pay more and more attention to studying these issues.
There are just a few findings belonging to the end of the third millennium BCE such as a stone-made sacral object from Sokh on the south of the Valley, the Khak and the Aflatun Treasures from the north of the Valley. Their origins are not defined yet but there is a strong opinion that they were brought from Elam. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that at that time there were some people living in Fergana and the monuments of sedentary cultures covered by thick layers of loess sediments will be found in the future. Perhaps the latest findings from the Shadym Burial in the Karasuv Dstrict of the Osh Province, Kyrgyzstan are first and important indicators of such opinion.
In conclusion we can say that Fergana is a region where the sedentary culture appeared very early. And the process of urban development has begun here at least 2700-2900 years ago; a lot of talented craftsmen, farmers and cattle-breeders lived here during the centuries.
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