CC BY
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Egorova O.A.
Associate professor, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Area Studies,
Moscow State University
THE EPITHETS DESCRIBING THE MAIN QUALITIES OF HEROES IN ENGLISH FAIRY TALES AND ANGLO-SCOTTISH
BALLADS
Abstract
The two most significant groups of epithets from English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads are analyzed in this article. The first group determines positive features and peculiarities of heroes and the second defines negative features of characters. The aim of this research is to find out which features and peculiarities united during many years of conveying English fairy tales and ballads by word of mouth, which was fixed as a tradition and thus appeared to be most stable and important for British national culture.
Key words: comparative analysis, worldview, folklore, English fairy tales, Anglo-Scottish ballads, tradition, epithet, positive and negative features of characters.
Close connection between studying of the folklore language and culture is undoubtful. ‘Language is a transmitter, bearer of culture; it transfers the treasures of the folk culture, stored in it across generations’ [1, 15]. That is why a full-scale research on the spiritual and moral traditions is impossible without involving the works of oral folk art, the language of fairy tales and ballads in particular.
The comparative analysis of the epithets in English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads is connected with the research concerning poetic imagery of these genres. An epithet adds a precise visual or other definiteness to the noun, making the listener or reader perceive the object in the way the storyteller wants, as it is needed for that very piece of work. The epithet expresses the worldview of people,
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its attitude towards the humanity, estimation of the world [2, 525]. However, the selection of epithets, the expressed worldview or emotions with the help of them are different for each folklore genre.
Before we pass to reviewing of epithets in English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads we have to characterize these genres. An outstanding researcher of Russian folklore, E.V. Pomerantseva formulates the following definition of a fairy tale: ‘The fairy tale is mostly a prosaic fictional narration of magic, adventurous or everyday character which is presented as an imaginary story’ [3, 220]. The combination of most unbelievable fantasy and reality is one of the main features of poetic content of a fairy tale. An antithesis between dream and reality is usually the basis of the fairy tale. The plot offers a complete though utopian solution to this problem. The dream triumphs in the fairy tale. ‘In fairy tales even the most dangerous adventures... happen only to highlight the fatal luck of the chosen ones. Readers find an optimistic charm about these happy characters’ [4, 96]. Fairy tale as one of most widespread, virtually universal folklore genres is that common basis that serves as a background for visual representation of nationally driven differences in mentality [5, 7].
Compared to fairy tales ballads are lyrico-epic songs telling about some tragic events. Personal, family and everyday themes are typical for the ballads. Ballads are focused on moral problems: love and hatred, faithfulness and adultery, crime and repentance. Ideological orientation of ballads is connected with folk humane morality. However, in folk ballads it is not presented directly that is not as a happy end or a preachy epilogue, but a real-life depiction of what actually took place in the years of endless conflicts along the whole English and Scottish borderline, when there died both: the right and the guilty, the strong and the weak, the hero and the villain.
These harsh realities of life, depictions of unjustified cruelty, unfairness, make up the basis of that powerful impact Anglo-Scottish ballads produce on the emotional world and morality of a person.
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According to V.Ya. Propp ‘A static epithet is used for the features people consider to be permanent and necessary and which it repeats... because the object is impossible for epic poetry outside this feature’ [6, 527]. The aim of our research is to define what features were united during years of oral transmission of English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads, which was fixed in tradition and thus appeared to be the most stable. In this context we consider to name a static epithet a set combination of a main noun and a determining adjective or noun.
We will analyze two most significant groups of epithets. The first group defines positive features and peculiarities of characters, and the second describes negative features. Comparison of epithets in two genres needs singling out the epithets which are used in English fairy tales or Anglo-Scottish ballads exclusively or are the same for both traditions.
1) We will analyze the group of epithets describing positive features and peculiarities of the characters.
English fairy tales have a range of epithets giving an abstract positive characteristic - good, goodly, fine, bonny(bonnie), sweet, nice: good wife, good man, bonny bride, bonny boy, sweet girl, nice girl [7]. In the overwhelming majority of cases most of the following epithets such as bonny, fine, fair, sweet are used to define the characters' appearance and their moral virtues, which speak of coincidence of inner and outer beauty of the positive fairy tale characters.
A typical addressing to a girl is: my bonny lass (lassie), к мужчине: my good man, bonnie man, kind good man.
Positive characters are described with epithets derived from adjective good (good-natured, good-tempered or good-hearted) or its synonyms (kind-hearted, soft-hearted). For example:
Jack’s mother was a good-tempered woman...
...a very good-hearted woman.
Jack was a clever boy, strong, good-natured, and ready with his hands.
Jack was a kind-hearted lad.
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Among the more concrete positive evaluative features of the masculine image bravery (brave, bold) and gallantry (the bravest and most gallant was Mr.Fox) are especially worthy.
In English fairy tales it is frequently spoken about kings, princes, gentle knights, proud ladies and gentlemen. Ladies and gentlemen are described by the static epithet proud, kings and princes are defined with such epithets as powerful and great, static epithets for knight are noble, brave and bold.
Besides all these features, English fairy tales emphasize such traits of women characters as prudence, quick-wittedness, which are reflected by epithets wise and clever: The youngest of the three strange lassies was called Molly Whuppie and she was very clever.
Epithet wise describes prophetic and wise women, whom the heroes visit to ask for advice:
To the Wise Woman went the Childe, and asked her advice.
Folk told him that he could get everything he liked from the wise woman that lived on the top o ’the hill, and dealt in potions and herbs and spells and things, and could tell thee all as'd’come to thee or thy folk.
Moreover the epithet wise is also a part of a compound proper name of a fairy tale female character: The Wise Woman.
In Anglo-Scottish ballads [8], as well as in fairy tales a large number of universal epithets is used. These are such epithets as good, fair,goodly:
"Good morrow, good fellow, " quoth Sir Guy;
"Good morrow, good _ fellow, " quoth hee;
"Methinkes by this bow thou beares in thy hand,
A good archer thou seems to bee."
One of the most popular epithets is an adjective from a Scottish dialect
bonny: bonny boy, bonny young page, bony bride:
"O whare will I get a bonny boy,
To rin my errand soon,
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That will rin into fair England,
An haste him back again?”
We shall mention that the adjective good can be used in different meanings. In addressing good means kind: my ain good lord... However, often good is used to indicate an innocent person:
If your daughter had been a good woman...
- is said with regret about a seduced girl.
In Anglo-Scottish ballads such epithets as gentle, brave, courteous, valiant ... are widely spread:
Then out it spake a valiant knight,
Johny's best friend was he;
I can commaun five hunder men,
An I 'II his surety be.
These epithets are also used when addressing to the character. For example, there is a static addressing courteous knight.
Mayor of the town is usually called mighty. The choice of this epithet and its further fixture can be explained, obviously, not only by the real idea of the mayor's power, but also by alliteration for m, which is so convenient for a verse:
This word came to the mighty mayor...
Ballads about Robin Hood play a specific part among the heroic ballads and in the Anglo-Scottish folklore itself. These ballads treat of boldness of Robin Hood, Little John, Friar Tuck and other archers from the "Merry Men" band of Sherwood Forest; about their cunningness, bravery, their ability to shoot bows without a miss.
These features are illustrated with the help of static epithets brave, noble, valiant: With that steps forth a brave young man,
Which was of courage bold;
Thus hee did say to the old man:
I pray thee, palmer old...
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Merry also belongs to the widespread epithets, it is used in the static alliteration-based formula of Robin Hood’s addressing to his companions or a knight to his bodyguards my merry men all or all my merry young men:
“Come hither, all my merry young men,
And drink the good red wine;
For we must on to fair Scotland,
To free my love frae pine. ”
Among the epithets expressing positive evaluation we can also single out such epithets as dear, sweet, pretty, fair, which are often used in addressing: sweet Willie, my pretty boy, my lady fair, ye gay ladies.
Together with the epithet gay another epithet - lusty (having the meaning merry in the Middle English) is very popular, it is usually used to describe a female character:
Clerk Colvill and his lusty dame Were walking in the garden green. or to address her:
My lusty lady, make my bed.
Further on it was perceived as a part of the female character’s name:
He’s changed her name from Susan Rye,
And called her lusty Lady Gane.
2) Antonyms of good compile the main body of negative evaluative epithets of English fairy tales, such as cruel, bad, ill-tempered, spiteful, wicked, unkind. For example: Sink on, cried the cruel _ princess, no hand or glove of mine you ’ll touch. Now the ill-tempered elder sister was very jealous of this good luck.
... being in want of money, the King at last married a rich lady, who was ugly, ill-tempered and spiteful.
... the cook-maid was an unkind, bad-tempered woman.
But the boy’s mother was really a wicked witch-woman...
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Evil magicians are characterized with the use of the epithets great and wicked. For example:
Once upon a time, there was a mighty baron in the North County who was a great magician and knew everything that would come to pass.
... the giant was really a great magician who could take any form he chose.
...he had been enchanted by a wicked magician...
Tales about giants and ogres form a special cycle of fairy tales, these creatures are defined with the epithets emphasizing their enormous height and fierce character. These features are depicted with the use of such epithets as
monstrous, awful, awesome, terrible, cruel, horrible, great, dreadful, fierce: cruel giant, monstrous giant, monstrous beast, dreadful, double-faced giant.
For example: They were very_fierce, huge.
... the Red Ettin, who was a very terrible beast, with three heads, that spared no living man it could get hold of.
So the young man went on, and by and by he saw a multitude of very dreadful beasts, with two heads, and on every headfour horns.
To frighten the reader more complex epithets composed of several synonyms are used. For example:
So the younger brother went on his way; but when he came to the place where the dreadful, terrible, horrible beasts were standing, he did not stop nor run away, but went boldly through amongst them.
Anglo-Scottish ballads about love form the largest group. However, they narrate mostly about misfortunes of love, betrayal, treachery and innumerous dangers and obstacles that the lovers used to face those times. The characters of ballads often die because of hostility and hatred, selfishness and cruelty of the relatives, unwilling to be merciful and kind. Such dramatic story lines make the reader empathize sincerely with the characters. The antagonists are described with the epithets evil, bad and ill, giving them a generalizing negative characteristic:
“Awa, awa, you ill woman,
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Gae frae my door for shame;
For I hae gotten another fair love,
Sae ye may hye you hame. ” ’
Heroic themes run through many ballads. Certain historic events concerning battles between English and Scottish troops, description of unjust deals (plundering inroads on neighbours, stealing another man’s bride) and hostile feelings: family discord, cruel vengeance, rivalry, etc. can be the basis of the ballads. It is very likely that the ballads devoted not to feats of arms, but to their sorrowful consequences for the characters, and tragic and bloody events happened due to the actions of betrayers, cruel and treacherous enemies have preserved the poetic charm. Thus, negative features of such ballad characters are described with the epithets savage, fause, angry, cruel, which constantly go together with the negative characters, who perform unjust actions:
Out then spack the jealous king,
And an angry man was he;
"O if he had been twice as fair,
You micht have excepted me....
Or
And so ready was his _ fair _ fause love To rise and let him in.
We shall note, that the negative evaluative epithets are much more in number and more expressive in dialogues, which is more emotional due to its nature. If the author is more reserved presenting the events, the character is free to choose vivid, emotional evaluative epithets to express his or her feelings: insult, hatred, scorn, etc.
An insulted father says to his enemy:
“For it ne ’er shall be that a churlish knight Eer married a daughter o' mine! ”
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An epithet can intensify, support insult, which is already in the determined word. The ballad tradition preserved a large number of such combinations:
“Awa, awa, ye ugly witch! ”
- answers a young man to the witch, soliciting for his love. The father addresses his daughter as follows:
“Get up, get up, ye dirty bitch! ”
In other variants of this ballad the heroine is named “ye dirty slut”, “ye foursome fag”, “ye filthy foul flag”, and the nouns and adjectives do not yield to each other in rudeness or abusiveness. The abundance of strong language is quite typical for the ballad characters.
As the research showed, the fantasy characters in English and Anglo-Scottish ballads are depicted with the use of static epithets, emphasizing their main features, peculiarities and functions, which create uniformity and predictability of folklore texts. The epithets defining positive and negative characters are mostly the same in these two genres. People know only strictly positive characters, embodying high ideals: courage, honesty, kindness, self-control or strictly negative characters, traitors to the country, invaders, violators, and enslavers. This means that there is the truth and untruth in a broad sense, and there is nothing in the middle. Possibly this is the explanation of the fact, that the static epithets in English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads describing positive and negative characters are divided into two groups: the epithet good with its synonyms and adjectives which express almost the same (goodly, fine, bonny(bonnie), sweet, nice) and antonyms of good such as cruel, bad, ill, wicked, evil. Each genre is characterized with its own range of epithets sometimes with overlapping semantics or stylistic connotation; however, eventually there appear to be significant differences.
Thus, in many English fairy tales the positive character has to fight dreadful many-headed giants. Various epithets are used in fairy tales to describe these creatures to show the difficulty of the trial for the hero in a more vivid way. Often
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complex epithets, consisting of a chain of simple ones, are used dreadful, terrible, horrible.
The hero of Anglo-Scottish ballads does not have to struggle with huge giants. However, his aim is not easier, and even somehow more complicated. His enemies are foul traitors, false friends, treacherous servants, unfaithful wives. Often the hero dies because of betrayal, but not because he lacked strength of courage to resist the enemy. Accordingly, in Anglo-Scottish ballads such static epithets as churlish, fause(false), savage, angry, cruel are used.
Thus, the epithets if English fairy tales and Anglo-Scottish ballads create vivid visual imageries by way of emphasizing distinctive qualities. The epithets meet one of the basic tendencies of the folklore language, which is to add an appropriate weight and sounding to the words, so that they and the expressed imageries are engraved in the memory. Finally, epithets express people’s opinion, judgement and evaluation.
References
1. Ter-Minasova S.G. Language and Cross-Cultural Communication. Moscow, 2000, p. 15.
2. Propp V.Ya. Russian Heroic Epos. Moscow: Labitint, 1999, p. 525
3. Pomerantseva E.V. Destinies of the Russian Fairy Tale. Moscow: Nauka, 1969, p. 220.
4. Makarenko A.S. Collected Works. Moscow, 1971, p. 96
5. Egorova O. A. Traditional formulae as a reflection of national mentality (based on Russian and English fairy tales), Moscow State University Bulletin// Series 19. Linguistic and Intercultural Communication, Moscow, 2002, p. 7.
6. Propp V.Ya. Russian Heroic Epos. Moscow: Labitint, 1999, p. 527.
7. Jacobs J. English Fairy Tales., Germany, 1994.
8. Child F.G. English and Scottish Popular Ballads, 1878.
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