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4S. V. Malanov
The Development of Goal Setting: From Evolutionary to Sociocultura! Patterns
В I ДО М О С Т I ПРО АВТОРА
Annotation. Regularities in development of goal-setting in living organisms are analyzed. It is recognized that it is erroneous to search for the causes that ensure the development of mental functions within the body and the brain. The genesis of the psyche is considered as a result of active interactions of organisms with the objective conditions of the surrounding world, in which the processes of goal-setting are differentiated. At the same time, qualitative differences are distinguished in the development of the abilities to set goals and subordinate them to the directions of vital activity in animal organisms in the process of evolution, on the one hand, and in human communities under conditions of cultural and historical development, on the other. The general stages and directions of the development of goal-setting abilities in the conditions of anthropogenesis and the subsequent socio-historical development of mankind, as well as in ontogenesis, are considered. The features of goal-setting as part of arbitrarily-intentional and volitional actions of a person are distinguished.
Keywords: goal setting, motivational relationships and goals; goal-setting in ontogenesis and anthropogenesis, arbitrary and volitional actions.
Цитуваяння: Malanov S. V. The Development of Goal Setting: From Evolutionary to Sociocultural Patterns. Теоретичш до-Ыдження у психологи: моногрфчна серiя. Сост. В.О. Медшцев. Том 17. 2023. С. 2-19. doi: 10.24412/2616-6860-2023-1-2-19.
The abilities for goal-setting and subordination to the intended goals of activities in people, as a rule, are explained on the basis of one of the alternative hypotheses. Firstly, it is a hypothesis about the evolutionary development of structures and functions of the brain in animal organisms, which are considered as the main sources of generating both goal setting and mental processes / functions. The concretization of such hypotheses leads to an explanation of goal setting by hypothetical processes of "information processing", which, in turn, are reduced to a multitude of neurophysiological and biochemical processes in the brain (Андерсон, 2002; Солсо, 1996; Фритт, 2014; Робертс, 2014; Якутенко, 2018). At the same time, empirical studies make it possible to register only
neurophysiological processes, and hypotheses about the generation of mental functions by the brain remain only theoretical models.
Secondly, these are hypotheses about the appearance of the psyche as a result of the evolutionary development in animal organisms of the functions of examining the environment (the orienting basis of actions), which make it possible to selectively direct locomotor and manipulative movements (actions). The consistent concretization of such hypotheses characterizes the central directions in the development of system-activity cultural-historical psychology Леонтьев, 1965, 2019; Иванников, 2010; Ма-ланов, 2018; 2019а).
Evolutionary prerequisites for goal setting
The evolutionary prerequisites for goal setting are "activity" as a universal property of living organisms (Александров, 2014; Анохин, 1978; Сурмава, 2010). At the same time, a number of "directions" for the spread of activity are distinguished:
1. The relative passive dependence of plant organisms on the presence of external conditions necessary to actively maintain the dynamic constancy of the internal environment, in animals is supplemented by external
activity - behavior that provides directed movements and manipulations based on selective orientation in the environment.
2. During the evolution of animals, the space-time intervals between: a) selective preparation for external activity and the beginning of active interactions with the external environment increase; b) the beginning of active interactions with the external environment and the results that the organism expects to receive. The expansion of such
capabilities in animal organisms underlies the evolutionary development of the psychological processes of goal setting and goal achievement.
3. During the period of anthropogenesis, there is a transition from active interactions with the natural environment, which provide adaptive, adaptive results in animals, to active transformations and the construction of external conditions for the existence of human communities (Смирнов, 1985).
Unlike plants, a specific feature of activity in animals is the selective orientation of interactions with the external environment, in which life attitudes (motivational attitudes) to the world around are realized. At the same time, all the central directions of life in animals are concentrated around the satisfaction of biological needs (preservation of viability, reproduction, protection of offspring), the satisfaction of which requires active selective interactions with a certain range of motivationally significant objects and subject conditions (Иванников, 2010).
The evolutionary development of the organs of movement and sense organs in animals ensures the formation of the functions of selective orientation in the environment on the basis of the allocation of conditions and objects that are important for life support - the formation of
sensitivity. Sensitivity is an evolutionarily initial form of development of an orienting basis for active selective interactions with the environment (Леонтьев А.Н., 1965, 2012; Гальперин, 1998; Маланов, 2018). Sensitivity also underlies the evolutionary initial forms of goal-setting. Evolutionary initial forms of goal-setting are active selectively directed movements of organisms based on orientation, which makes it possible to single out and differentiate the properties of the external environment. Such forms of goalsetting are already observed in unicellular organisms in the form of taxis. It is important to note that sensitivity is formed not as intraorganismal phenomena, but as an actively implemented relationship between the organism and the objective conditions of the environment.
At the same time, in the process of evolutionary differentiation of tissues and organs in multicellular animals, it becomes necessary to regulate the relationship between physiological processes in the internal environment of the organism and the organization of behavior in the external environment. As a result, sensitivity is differentiated: a) into experiences of internal states (affective sensitivity); b) the ability to orientate in the environment (exteroceptive sensitivity); c) the ability to feel and control one's own movements (proprioceptive sensitivity). The vital activity of
animals begins to be provided by complex dynamic relationships between changes: a) internally experienced states of need ( needs ); b) behavioral activity in the environment, aimed at the selective allocation of subject conditions and objects ( motivational relations and goals ), the achievement of which leads to the satisfaction of needs (Запорожец, 2000; Леонтьев, 2000, 2012).
Therefore, the evolution of mental functions and goalsetting mechanisms in animal organisms has a general focus : a) changing the environment; ^b) changes in behavior necessary for survival and adaptation; ^c) the need to change the ways of orientation and goal-setting on the basis of improving the functions of the sense organs, adapting to the organization of new forms of behavior; ^d) evolutionary selection of organisms with functional (physiological) and structural (anatomical) features of the organs of locomotion, sense organs, nervous system and brain, etc. At the same time, intraorganismal physiological and neurophysiological processes are functionally adjusted to the purposeful forms of activity realized by animals (Анохин, 1978; Леонтьев, 1965; Маланов, 2018; Маланов, 2019а). And evolutionary changes in the life of animals occur in two closely related directions:
• Changing behavior based on improving the methods of orientation in the natural environment and the allocation of
goal-setting mechanisms, as well as changes in the functionality of using the musculoskeletal system.
• Change and expansion of the biological significance of various objects and objects of the environment, to which life activity is directed (development of needs and motivational relations).
Since the achievement of biologically significant objects in a subject-differentiated environment in multicellular animals requires avoiding all kinds of dangers and overcoming various obstacles, the implementation of the directions of life activity is divided into many stages, each of which involves the achievement of an intermediate result. This leads to the allocation in the implementation of the relationship "organism - a biologically significant object" of intermediate mutually subordinate goals that divide the motor activity of animals into interrelated stages - actions (Анохин, 1978; Бернштейн, 1991, 1997). Depending on the functional organization of life in the process of evolution, mental orientation is improved from the selective isolation of the properties of the environment (sensitivity) to the development of abilities to isolate, examine and identify: a) the objective properties of objects (perception); b) interdisciplinary connections and relationships (thinking) (Леонтьев, 1965; 2000; 2012).
Development of goal-setting i
During the period of anthropogenesis, methods of organizing the life of animals in the natural environment based on evolutionary and biological laws are replaced by methods of organizing life by transforming the natural environment based on the accumulation and transmission in generations of socio-historical (socio-cultural, cultural-historical) experience. In the sequence of generations of people, social experience begins to accumulate and be transmitted: a) the production and use of various objects of human culture; b) the manufacture of guns and the use of emerging sign-symbolic means; c) organization of interpersonal and social relations in communities. The needs of each member of the community begin to be satisfied on the basis of the distribution of actions within the framework of social activities through the processes of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of the created products.
The objects of motivational relations and the goals towards which the actions of community members are directed begin to be determined not by biological needs, but by the tasks of preserving and improving social forms of life. Representatives of such a community from the moment of birth have to: a) build an individual system of motivational
the period of anthropogenesis
relations in the socio-cultural conditions of public life; b) learn how to set socially significant goals and how to achieve them; b) subordinate their actions and main directions of activity to such goals. Therefore, in such conditions of life, two mutually related aspects of the transmission of cultural and historical experience in generations are distinguished: a) the organization of objective actions and methods of using tools, the mastery of which is required to maintain and improve production relations with the natural environment; b) ways of organizing interactions between people necessary to maintain social and interpersonal relationships. Being included in the system of interpersonal and social relations, each newborn masters: a) human methods of goal-setting and the ability to subordinate goals when performing sequences of objective actions that acquire social significance; b) an individual measure of responsibility to the community (Гальперин, 1998).
A necessary side of social forms of life activity is the development of the ability to represent and predict the possible results of actions and ways to achieve them by highlighting objective, stably reproducible intersubjective
and intersubjective relations and connections. The development of such abilities is provided by:
• Publicly broadcast methods of manufacturing and using tools, with the help of which the following are distinguished and generalized: a) the objective properties of objects and phenomena that are revealed when using tools; b) ways of performing gun actions; c) possible outcomes.
• Improving the ways of using gesture-imitation and emerging language tools that allow: a) organizing joint actions and interactions between members of the community; b) fix and broadcast the methods and results of cognitive-orienting activity and organization of actions.
On the basis of a generalization of the ways of making and using tools in the composition of social activities, subject meanings are distinguished and transmitted in generations . Objective meanings gradually receive designations with the help of imitative gestures, as well as emerging linguistic means, and are "separated" from practical actions and tools in the form of an indicative basis for the possible organization of actions to obtain possible results. With the help of sign-symbolic and linguistic means, joint methods of goal-setting, orientation and planning of possible actions in possible objective situations begin to be built - verbal meanings are formed. As a result, the totality of joint (public) knowledge that can be
exchanged by members of the community is improved. Such processes underlie the specific forms of people's mental orientation - consciousness (Выготский, Лурия, 1993; Кликс, 1983; Глотова, 1990; Леонтьев, 2000; Лурия, 1979).
Thus, in the conditions of the formation of primitive communities, joint methods of goal-setting are formed, improved and transmitted based on orientation in the surrounding world (public consciousness, as a "set of joint knowledge"), which are used to organize social activities. At the same time, joint imitation actions are first widely used . Such actions are reduced to joint imitation rituals and gesture-imitation means, with the help of which orientation, planning and joint reproduction of various types of social activities and objective actions (search for resources, protection of territories, cultivation of the land, hunting, etc.) are provided. Subsequently, gestural and imitative forms of communication are replaced by speech ones. Similar processes are well illustrated by historical changes in the organization of magical rituals:
• Contact magical actions, when the object is directly affected by various means and sources that have magical powers (use of amulets, talismans, potions, etc. when interacting with the object).
• Magical actions performed in the absence of the object of influence in relation to the accessible parts of the object
(hair, nails) or in relation to objects that were in contact with the object (leftovers, parts of clothing, imprinted footprints, etc.).
• Magical actions aimed at material sign-symbolic substitutes for objects (dolls, figures, images), providing the intended remote effects on the corresponding objects.
• Magical actions aimed at a spatially inaccessible, inaccessible object, ideas about which are updated with the
Directions of the genesis of goal-setting
The initial forms of organization of social life that are laid down in anthropogenesis are differentiated into many derivative types and types of human actions. The specialization of subjects in the performance of actions leads to a division of labor for a variety of reasons. Actions are singled out and differentiated, which: a) have different social significance; b) become motivationally significant for individual subjects and begin to determine their individual directions of life activity in the community (individual "types of activities"); c) give rise to many inter-subject and social contradictions that require constant resolution. At the same time, a number of operations are distinguished as part of any action: a) preliminary orientation in the subject conditions; b) selection and goal setting; c) planning; c)
help of linguistic and other sign-symbolic means (conspiracies, spells).
Thus, if initially in magical actions a significant place is occupied by imitative-performing components, which are accompanied by speech designations and explanations, then later such components are reduced and replaced by speech actions and mentally actualized animistic and religious-mystical representations (Токарев, 1990; Хейер-дал, 1959, с. 426-432).
in the historical development of mankind
performance that provides a specific product; d) control, correction and evaluation of the results. As a result of the distribution among the members of the community of actions and operations, they are transformed into independent purposeful specialized types of social activities. On this basis, derivative types of social activities related to goal-setting, planning and coordinated organization of the actions of other members of the community are differentiated (Леонтьев, 2000; Гальперин, 1998, 2002). Under such conditions, the speech forms of situational communication acquire new functions - the organization of joint generalized supra-situational methods of orientation in possible subject conditions.
The practical side of social activity and communication initially constitute a single process. Communication initially serves for situational goal setting, planning, organization and management of joint activities based on the direct distribution of actions between members of the community. Technological complication of actions requires the improvement of object-related imitative-gestural and sound articulatory-perceptual means of communication. On this basis, the use of linguistic means is differentiated in two main directions. Firstly, in the direction of expanding the units of nominative vocabulary - highlighting and designating with the help of words an ever wider range of objects involved in social activity, their subject properties, intersubject relations and connections, as well as improving ways of organizing and performing subject operations and actions. Secondly, in the direction of improving the syntax - ways to organize joint practical, and later mental actions based on the combination of lexical units as part of communicative interactions. As the ways of using language means are differentiated, the exchange in human communities of possible ways of orientation in possible subject situations is improved. Such processes underlie the operation of representations and concepts (Леонтьев, 2003).
The abilities for independent operation of mental actions by individual members of human communities are derived from the initial joint mental actions organized with the help of linguistic means. The development of individual abilities to build mental actions is based on the use of speech "addressed to oneself as to another." This is due to the shift in the goals of speech actions, originally aimed at the mutual organization of mental actions in communication between people, to the organization of one's own mental actions. Initially, external sound forms of speech lose their expanded sound forms, but are retained on reduced articulatory-muscular processes - "inner speech" is formed (Выготский, 1983; Соколов, 1967). As a result, individual subjects become carriers of individual consciousness, which is derived from social forms of consciousness - accumulated and transmitted over generations of joint ways of orienting and organizing joint actions in various subject areas of the surrounding world. And the actions and operations of preliminary orientation and planning of possible actions mediated by inner speech in possible subject conditions are transformed into mental cognitive-orienting and cognitive-constructive types of actions and activities (Леонтьев, 2003).
In the conditions of social life and the transmission of sociocultural experience, two important aspects stand out: a)
the organization of production relations with the natural environment; b) organization of social and interpersonal relations within communities. The reasons in accordance with which public expectations and requirements for the organization of subject-practical actions are presented are relatively consistent and are confirmed by objectively obtained results and practical experience. At the same time, the substantiation and explanation of the expectations and requirements that are presented to different people in the system of social relations, as well as in interpersonal interactions, are full of contradictions. This is due to the historical processes of socio-economic stratification and stratification in human communities. Note that the need to resolve such contradictions is the main factor in the formation of volitional regulation in human communities based on the development of such goal-setting methods that involve the subject's orientation in the content of his own motivational relations, on the one hand, and social requirements and expectations, on the other (see below) .
The content features of motivational relations, goalsetting, orientation and organization of actions that are formed in ontogenesis imply not only the appropriation and adherence to social expectations, prescriptions, requirements, restrictions, but also justification, explanation of the reasons, according to which it is necessary to follow socially given
requirements and prescriptions . In primitive communities, relations are built on spontaneously formed traditions, which receive mythological and mystical explanations. And with the historical development and differentiation of social relations, such expectations and requirements begin to rely on religious and ideological means of organizing social consciousness, as well as on political forms of legislative activity aimed at substantiating the emerging social relations.
Analyzing the content of social expectations and requirements, three components can be distinguished (Bu-nroHac, 1990, 2006):
• An indication of what and how members of the community should relate to, what and how they should do / not do (prescriptive part).
• Basis, reasons for social expectation or requirement, an indication of why members of the community should relate to something or do / not do something (arguing part).
• Peculiarities of relationships and connections between prescription and argumentation.
Historically changing forms of social and interpersonal relations are beginning to be regulated by elders, leaders, shamans, rulers, and socio-economic stratification and inequality are justified with the help of mythological and
religious-mystical ideas . Corresponding ideas become sociocultural means of forming individual directions of goal-setting and motivational relations (Иванников, Шляпников, 2012). Along with religious and mystical ideas, prohibitions and taboos act as joint forms of arbitrary deliberate organization of interactions between people in the system of social relations - selective socially controlled restrictions imposed on the organization and implementation of certain actions and intersubjective interactions (Абукаева, 2018; Леви-Стросс,1994, 2000). The readiness to fulfill such expectations and requirements by representatives of different social strata of the community is determined both by the content of the instructions and arguments that dominate in society, and by the social position and life prospects provided.
With the social stratification of communities, the importance of mythological, mystical and religious ideas as the basis for the preservation and maintenance of social and interpersonal relations is growing. For example, in a tribal community, on the basis of imitation-magic practice, magical ideas grow up and animistic images of spirits are built. Totemism acts as a religion characteristic of a tribal society, providing a justification and explanation for the corresponding consanguineous forms of social relations. Totemism is built on the basis of the internalization of
belief in supernatural family ties that exist between certain groups of people and animals or plants, often characterized by the cult of family and tribal shrines and cults of ancestors. Ideas about totemic ancestors form a mythological personification of the unity of the group, the continuity of its traditions and the commonality of its origin (Хейердал, 1959; Фрезер, 2003).
In the era of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of class forms of social organization, images of gods appear, with the help of which economic and social (class) stratification in human communities is explained and justified, as well as the corresponding forms of organizing social relations based on the inequality of economic, social, political and legal opportunities. Thus, the emergence of hierarchically organized class social relations (Babylon, Assyria, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece) leads to the identification of ideas about the pantheon of gods, between which a hierarchical organization of relations and interactions is built, serving as an explanatory model for substantiating social and interpersonal relations in society. At the same time, the emergence of new forms of religion follows the emergence of new forms of production and social relations. And the previous religious ideas are gradually transformed and
replaced by new forms of their organization (Токарев, 1990, с. 376-403; Маланов, 20196).
With the birth of monarchical forms of organization of social relations, the corresponding substantive forms of religious and mystical explanations begin to line up. Pagan forms of beliefs and polytheism are supplanted by monotheism. And as the capitalist mode of production develops on the basis of accelerating scientific and technological progress and the spread of the scientific worldview, religious and mystical justifications and explanations of the socio-economic, political and legal inequality of people become less and less convincing. The organization of such justifications and explanations becomes a particular problem for the ruling class and the economically wealthy part of society. "Social theories" and
Directions and stages of develo
The mental development of a child from the moment of birth is realized in interactions shared with other people in two central interrelated areas: a) the selective formation of motivational attitudes towards people, interpersonal and social relations, as well as towards objects of human culture and the natural environment; b) mastering the methods of goal-setting, as well as methods for achieving the set goals - methods of orientation, planning, execution, control and
pseudo-scientific ways of analyzing and explaining existing social relations are beginning to be used. And the appropriation by community members of the content of such grounds, explanations and pseudo-explanations begins to be provided by the explicit or hidden content of the state ideology and socio-psychological technologies.
Thus, the development of individual forms of goalsetting, as well as arbitrary-intentional and volitional organization of actions in the conditions of modern social relations, can be based on the internalization of religious and mystical ideas, legislative requirements and restrictions, scientific and pseudoscientific grounds, as well as moral and ethical ideas and norms, which the subject (personality) begins to adhere to.
t of goal-setting in ontogenesis
correction, ensuring the implementation of various actions that allow the realization of motivational relationships.
From the moment of birth, the purposefulness of the child's actions is organized by adults on the basis of external models and verbal instructions. Up to 2-3 years of age, in interactions with adults, children develop the initial skills to arbitrarily set goals, organize and perform subject-practical
actions (Выготский, 1983; Выготский, Лурия, 1993; Запорожец, 2000).
• First, adults act as sources of human goal-setting, directing the mental orientation and organizing the child's actions in objective situations with the help of demonstrated samples, gestures, and linguistic means.
• On the basis of patterns of goal-setting and organization of practical actions set by adults, the child learns in various objective situations to independently use sign and language means to set goals as part of joint practical actions with adults.
• By the age of three, a child acquires the ability to independently use language tools to set their own goals, update their own ways of orientation and organization of subject-practical actions.
From that moment on, there are signs of a "crisis of three years", which are associated with the emergence of independent goal-setting. Based on the active use of the pronoun "I" and "egocentric speech", the child begins to oppose individual and joint goals of action. As a result, the contradictions between the goals of the child and adults are temporarily exacerbated, which are perceived as "stubbornness and inconsistency." The child enters the preschool period of development.
If at first the setting of goals and the organization of independent subject-practical actions are based on external "loud" speech ("egocentric speech"), then later external speech is gradually transformed into "internal" speech, based on silent contracting articulations (Соколов, 1967).
If in a child in early childhood the initial goal-setting methods are associated with perceived objects in a situational environment, then from about the age of 3, children, in accordance with the speech instructions of other people, begin to form the ability to set goals and perform mental actions with presented objects . Separated, and then independently organized mental actions begin to form - the ability, relying on external, and then independent internal speech, to operate with possible ways of orientation in possible objective situations. At the stage of mastering divided mental actions and mental forms of goalsetting, children are more and more successfully included in communicative interactions, which are organized on the basis of the speech organization of mutual ideas about possible actions and events in possible objective situations. And as part of the unfolding game actions, the methods of independent mental goal-setting and organization of orientation, planning and implementation of possible actions in possible situations begin to improve. At the same time, as part of game actions, along with speech, game
objects are used as external sign-symbolic supports for organizing mental actions p^bKOHMH, 1978; nararuHa, 1997; Cy66arcKMM, 2007). By the time of schooling, children develop the skills to arbitrarily update their own mental actions and subordinate them to mentally set goals on the basis of inner speech.
At senior preschool age and during schooling, children improve the ability to plan and perform mutually subordinate mental actions , which involve such goal setting, when the achievement of the goal of one action is a condition for achieving the goal of the second action, which serves as a condition for achieving the goal of the third actions, etc. The skills to plan and perform delayed (intentional-voluntary) actions are also improved , which are
Goal setting a
From birth, every child is forced to meet certain social expectations and requirements. Therefore, one has to learn to subordinate part of one's life to the requirements and expectations of other people, often to the detriment of developing individual goals and motivational relationships. The formation of volitional actions (will and volitional regulation) is based on the choice of such goals and appropriate ways to achieve them, which have social significance and require overcoming internal subjective and
first outlined in a mental form in interactions with people or independently, and are practically implemented when the child finds himself in the conditions of the planned situation. Intentional mutually subordinate actions involve: a) the development of children's skills to set goals and bring them into the future, b) the development of skills to subordinate their activity to goals set for the future. Such actions underlie human ways of planning and implementing motivationally significant areas of life activity. At the same time, the achievement of deliberately set goals eliminates their relevance and implies a transition to a new stage of goal setting. That is why the well-known "effect of unfinished action" is recorded, identified in the studies of K. Levin and B.V. Zeigarnik (Маланов, 2017).
itional action
external objective obstacles on the way to achieving results (Гальперин, 1998).
Individual motivational relations (motives), although they have a social conditionality, can enter into conflicting relationships with the individual motives of other people, with social norms, social expectations, and also with the tasks of social activity. Therefore, the motivation to perform actions under the conditions of social expectations and restrictions can act as special tasks for the subject, requiring
the search for motivational grounds for setting those goals that are dictated by social necessity. Therefore, in interactions with people, each child develops special forms of goal-setting and regulation of actions that are required in cases where it is necessary:
• set goals and perform socially necessary or expected actions by people that are not related to actual needs or motivational relationships;
• to refrain from attractive ways of setting goals and corresponding actions that are associated with a currently experienced need or motivational attitude, but are socially disapproved or have an asocial character;
• face objective and subjective obstacles that reduce the ability to maintain and maintain the impulse to perform an action whose goal is of social importance.
If the organization of voluntary actions involves a conscious orientation and organization of relations between the goal and ways to achieve it, then a volitional action involves a conscious orientation in the relationship between the goals of actions, motivational relations and social expectations - it involves an independent conscious search for motivation to set goals and implement socially significant actions (HBaHHMKOB, 1998, 2014; CMupHOBa, 1998).
The development of methods for setting goals and organizing volitional actions is subject to the general pattern of development of higher mental functions of a person: from joint divided, external, expanded forms of action to independent, individual, mental, reduced actions. The upbringing and development of the will consists in creating conditions for the child to assimilate socially significant values and their subsequent transformation into stable motivational relationships and appropriate goalsetting methods (Иванников, 1998). Therefore, from early childhood, the child learns to a greater or lesser extent to set goals that involve the subordination of the directions of his own activity to the expectations of other people and social expectations. On this basis, volitional actions are formed , the organization of which has a number of features:
• when setting and choosing goals, social expectations, as well as the interests of other people and society, acquire the dominant motivational value for the subject (Гальперин, 2002);
• such goals can be set even to the detriment of individual motivational relationships, which gives rise to a subjective experience of a "struggle of motives" when choosing and setting goals (Рубинштейн, 2008);
• at the same time, the subject partially realizes and analyzes the motivational grounds for choosing and setting goals (MBaHHMKOB, 1998; 2010);
• the expectations and interests of other people and society can acquire a dominant motivational value (personal meaning) for the subject, become beliefs that form the basis of a "volitional personality" (TMnneHpeMTep, 2006).
A strong-willed personality is a person who successfully implements socially significant tasks in his life, overcoming
Coi
1. The theoretical foundations of system-activity cultural-historical psychology make it possible to build a consistent analysis and explanation of the evolutionary origin of the psychological mechanisms of goal-setting and their subsequent development in the conditions of the socio-historical development of mankind.
2. Goal-setting, as well as other mental functions identified as part of actions, is formed and develops not as intraorganismal functions, but as processes that ensure the organization of interactions between living organisms and objective environmental conditions on the basis of selective orientation. At the same time, in the ontogeny of higher animals, physiological and neurophysiological functions do not give rise to the psyche, but are adjusted to actions
obstacles even to the detriment of individual needs and motivational relationships. For a strong-willed personality, the problem of choice when setting goals ceases to be relevant, since the choice of the main motivational relations and the central directions of life activity is subjectively determined. Such certainty of leading motivational relations (motives) directs or limits the choice of possible goals (rnnneHpeMTep, 2006).
actively built by the body with the objective conditions of the environment / surrounding world.
3. Human forms of goal-setting are conditioned by the laws of cultural and historical development, and cannot be explained only on the basis of the laws of the evolutionary development of living organisms, as well as on the basis of the construction of hypothetical models of "information processing" in the brain.
5. In the process of historical development, socio-cultural means and methods of organizing and broadcasting goal-setting processes in the system of emerging social relations and as part of various types of social activities are formed and changed.
8. The inclusion of a child from the moment of birth in certain socially organized conditions of interaction with people and objects of human culture determines the
development of human forms of individual goal-setting, intentional-arbitrary organization of actions, as well as the development of volitional regulation.
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С. В. Маланов
Розвиток цшепокладання: вщ еволюцшних до соцюкультурних моделей
Аннотащя. Проанал1зовано законом1рноси розвитку цшепокладання у живих оргашзм1в. Визнаеться помилковим по-шук причин, що забезпечують розвиток псих1чних функцш в оргашзм1 i мозку. Генезис психши розглядаеться як результат активних взаемодш органiзмiв з об'ективними умовами навколишнього свiту, в яких диференцшються процеси щ-лепокладання. При цьому видiляються якiснi вiдмiнностi у розвитку здiбностей до цiлепокладання та пщпорядкування !х напрямам життедiяльностi у тваринних органiзмiв у процесi еволюци, з одного боку, та людських сшльнот в умовах культурно! та кторичний розвиток, з шшого. Розглянуто загальш етапи та напрямки розвитку цшепокладання в умовах антропогенезу та подальшого суспшьно-кторичного розвитку людства, а також в онтогенеза Видiляються особливостi цшепокладання як частини довшьно-навмисних i вольових дш особи.
Ключое'1 слова: цшепокладання, мотивацшш вiдносини та цiлi; цшепокладання в онтогенезi та антропогенезi, довшьш та вольовi ди.
