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17ԳԻՏԱԿԱՆ ԱՐՑԱԽ SCIENTIFIC ARTSAKH НАУЧНЫЙ АРЦАХ № 1(4), 2020
ՔԱՂԱՔԱԳԻՏՈՒԹՅՈՒՆ,
ՄԻՋԱԶԳԱՅԻՆ ՀԱՐԱԲԵՐՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՆԵՐ
POLITICAL SCIENCE, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ПОЛИТОЛОГИЯ, МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ
THE CONTEMPORARY BORDERLANDS AND THE IDEA OF CROSSBORDER COOPERATION AND PARADIPLOMACY:
SOME REFLECTIONS FOR THE POST-SOVIET STATES*
ARKADIUSZ ZUKOWSKI
Director of the Institute ofPolitical Science,
University of Warmia and Mazury,
Doctor in Political Sciences, Professor,
Olsztyn, Poland
arkadiusz.zukowski@,uw m.edu.pl
At the beginning the importance of borders and borderlands in contemporary world is underlined, especially consequences for the newly independent post-Soviet states which have taken the borders established by the Soviet Union. A new role of borders and borderlands is taken into consideration according to the New Regionalism theoretical approach with some reference to the post-Soviet states. The cross-border cooperation is defined and presented in the context of the solving different problems on the borderlands.
The cross-border cooperation is analysed through paradiplomacy and its importance in contemporary International Relations. In the end necessity of implementation of the idea of cross-border cooperation and paradiplomacy is exposed with the reflections and recommendations to the post-Soviet states.
Keywords: borderlands, cross-border cooperation, paradiplomacy, new regionalism, postSoviet states.
The problem of borders and borderlands are very crucial in the contemporary world. This problem is also very important for the newly independent states created after the fall of the Soviet Union. In Soviet times it was not a problem, and if it appeared, it was not treated as very important in the intra-state and even less international dimension, e.g. the incorporation of Crimea from the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) in 1954 by the decision of the First Secretary of the CPSU Nikita Khrushchev.
The borders of the former Soviet republics did not entirely correspond to ethnic and religion divisions. In some cases the new/old borders and borderlands became more conflict areas. The Nagorno-Karabakh was and still is a good example of this currently.
In 1918, after the October Revolution, Nagorno-Karabakh, inhabited by Armenians became part of the South Caucasus Federal Democratic Republic (Закавказская демократическая Федеративная Республика), which soon broke up into independent states: Georgia, Armenia and
* Հոդվածը ներկայացվել ընդունվել' 10.04.2020թ.:
է 05.03.2020թ., գրախոսվել' 20.03.2020թ.,
տպագրության
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Azerbaijan. The Caucasian tatars, supported by Turkey entered Nagorno-Karabakh in order to drive the Armenians out of the largest possible area of historical Armenia. Despite Turkey’s defeat in the First World War, the Allies, ignoring the Armenians’ protests, granted Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan, hoping to gain access to oil fields in Baku in the future.
In 1920, the Southern Caucasus was occupied by the Bolsheviks, who annexed Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan, hoping to facilitate the export of Communism to Turkey and recognising the Armenians, who dreamed of independence, as natural enemies of the unity of the Soviet state. In 1923, the Armenian Autonomous District (Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous District) was established on most of the territory, forming part of the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic, while the rest of the area was incorporated directly into the Azerbaijani SSR. In the end of the Soviet Union political situation in this Autonomous District became more and more tense (ethnic riots took place, in which 220 people were killed and more than 1.000 wounded between December 1987 and the end of 1988).
The newly independent post-Soviet states have taken the borders established by the Soviet Union authorities, especially by its leader and dictator Joseph Stalin what meant their petrifaction. The consequences of such border’s decisions had not only demographic, social, economic, cultural, but also important political and military outcomes. In some cases so-called “old/new” borders appeared to be a source of military conflicts, e.g. Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1992-1994.
New Regionalism
At the turn of the 20th and 21st century new research approaches have been dealing with innovative notions for regional integration and the new role of borders and borderlands. This trend is called “new regionalism”, which is a characteristic feature of the globalization era and is treated not only as a result of global processes, but much more as a challenge or search for the response for a new reality in the International Relations. Furthermore, in contradiction to earlier approaches, it examines the processes of regionalization not only from the formal (official), but also from the informal perspective. According to Bjoern Hettne “new regionalism” is developing in the new reality of the multi polar world, which gives it more room for action (maneuver), it is much more spontaneous and results from the need for cooperation in the face of global challenges; presupposes openness and integration in world economy; with preferential nature of relationships within the region; is much more complex and involves many areas of international cooperation; co-operation involves not only states but various stakeholders such as representatives of civil society and international organizations1. “New Regionalism”, however, focuses mainly on the economic sphere, less on the political and rare social and cultural (including ethnic).
The theoretical basis of this New Regionalism Approach is being formed, and as far as representatives of this trend are concerned the following scholars are most often mentioned: Daniel Bach, Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai, Timothy M. Shaw, Fredrik Soderbaum and Osvaldo Sunkel2.
The theoretical concepts of “new regionalism” were also applied to the post-Soviet states3. In other publications, this approach is being questioned in relation to some of the post-Soviet states4. In practice “new regionalism” in the post-Soviet States met with many obstacles but
1 Globalism and the New Regionalism, ed. by B. Hettne, A. Inotai, O. Sunkel, New York 1999, pp. 6-9.
2 F. Soderbaum, Introduction: Theories of New Regionalism, in: Theories of New Regionalism, ed. by F. Soderbaum, T. Shaw, Basingstoke 2003, pp. 1-21; B. Hettne, The New Regionalism Revisited, in: Theories of New Regionalism, ed. by F. Soderbaum, T. Shaw, Basingstoke 2003, pp. 22-42.
3 See for example works of Alexander Libman and Evgeny Vinokurov: A. Libman, E. Vinokurov, Holding-Together Regionalism: Twenty Years of Post-Soviet Integration, Serie: Euro-Asian Studies, London 2012; Libman A., Regionalisation and regionalism in the post-Soviet space: Current status and implications for institutional development, Europe-Asia Studies, 2007, Vol. 59:, No. 3, pp. 401-430.
4 New Regionalism or No Regionalism? Emerging Regionalism in the Black Sea Area, ed. by R. Ivan, Burlington 2012.
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positive examples also appeared. For some member states the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)5 has been exploited as an opportunity to work in a multilateral setting on practical issues that unite them despite the fact that their quarrels have not been resolved. The examples of Armenia/ Azerbaijan, and Moldova/Russia cases demonstrated the usefulness of the BSEC from the perspective of “new regionalism”6. It positively impacted for the regional security7.
Border and borderlands
In modern International Relations, alongside globalisation trends, the importance of regions, interregional and cross-border cooperation is growing. Deepening globalisation processes have not weakened regional structures; on the contrary, regional ties are becoming stronger, various regional interests are being articulated more and more clearly, and regional and local authorities are increasingly trying to participate in decision-making processes, including foreign affairs and contacts with foreign partners.
Borderland is understood as the area of contact between two countries, including the regions defined according to the principal territorial division of the state. These borderlands are often characterised by their peripherality in the national dimension (most of them are located far from the main areas of the country’s socio-economic activity) and in the international and geopolitical dimension (such borderlands in the European Union terminology are called “outermost regions)8 9. This problem affects all regions of the world, and particularly non-Western
9
states .
The establishment of contacts between border areas/borderlands determines the emergence of the cross-border phenomenon. According to the European Framework Convention on Transfrontier Cooperation of Territorial Communities and Authorities, any joint action taken jointly to strengthen and further develop the neighbourly relations between the territorial communities and authorities of two or more contracting parties, as well as to conclude the agreements and arrangements necessary for this purpose shall be regarded as cross-border
5 The Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) came into existence as a unique and promising model of multilateral political and economic initiative with the signing of the Istanbul Summit Declaration and the Bosphorus Statement by the Heads of State and Government of the countries in the region, on 25 June 1992. With the entry into force of its Charter on 1 May 1999, BSEC acquired international legal identity and was transformed into a full-fledged regional economic organization - the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, see: BSEC at a glance, http://www.bsec-organization.org/ [12.10.2019].
6 J. Bremmer, A. Bailes, Sub-regionalism in the Newly Independent States, International Affairs, 1998, Vol. 74, No.1, pp. 144-145.
7 C. Tsardanidis, The BSEC: From New Regionalism to Inter-regionalism?, Agora Without Frontiers, 2005, Vol. 10, No. 4, p. 374.
8 See more on category of borderland: W.T. Modzelewski, A. Zukowski, Kategoria pogranicza w politologii. Aspekty teoretyczne i praktyczne (The category of borderland in political science. Theoretical and practical approaches), Pogranicze. Polish Borderlands Studies, 2013, No. 1, pp. 35-43.
9 Author’s researches on the borderlands up to now focused on Africa, see: A. Zukowski, Pogranicza w Afryce Subsaharyjskiej. Regiony wspdlpracy czy konfliktdw? (Sub-Saharan African borderlands — regions of cooperation or regions of hostility?), in: Przestrzen i granice we wspdlczesnej Afryce (Space and borders in contemporary Africa), ed. A. Zukowski, Serie: Forum Politologiczne (Political Science Forum), Vol. 10, Olsztyn 2009, pp. 225—242; A. Zukowski, Sub-Saharan African borderlands: Towards new theoretical and practical approach to the development of Africa, Polish Political Science Yearbook, 2012, Vol. 51, pp. 98-114; A. Zukowski. Sub-Saharan African borderlands: Regions of cooperation or regions of hostility? Towards new approach to the development of Africa, in: Development in East Africa: Politics, security and conflicts management, ed. by D. K. Gemechu, E. Haulle, A. Zukowski, Iringa - Olsztyn 2018, pp. 163-182.
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cooperation10. The cross-border cooperation shall be limited by the framework of the competences of territorial communities and authorities, as defined by national law.
The cross-border cooperation can be defined as - neighbourhood cooperation of adjacent border regions. It serves, for example, to mitigate the adverse effects of the existence of borders by carrying out joint projects and solving problems, e.g. reducing peripherality (although it is worth remembering that peripherality of location does not always translate into economic peripherality). It is currently an important factor of regional development and security.
The area of cooperation around national borders consisting of administrative regions creates a cross-border area (region), cross-border or simply a border area. This category has a multithreaded and multi-faceted nature, determined, among others, by historical, cultural and political factors.
A cross-border region treated as a certain whole (e.g. in historical terms), however, does not constitute a single socio-economic space, but is the sum of spaces connected to the territories of neighbouring countries.
The degree of contacts between the borderlands depend mainly on the specificity of the state border, including its openness. The evolution of the border's function is now visible: from the spatial barrier to the plane of cooperation, the border is a meeting place especially in the context of globalisation, the essence of which is the shrinking space, shrinking time and disappearing borders11. Each contemporary state is subject to these processes with different intensity, and their perception by its society or political elites may also be different. This is determined by a number of objective and subjective factors, including political ones, and may boil down to an assessment of the cross-border phenomenon by comparing the resulting risks and benefits.
The growing importance of cross-border interactions and their direct impact on border space has led to the emergence of a new type of state policy - border policy, whose main objective is to regulate the functioning of the border and to harmonise the dynamics of cross-border processes within the national territory. The border policy has taken an indirect position between foreign and internal policies in their traditional sense.
The cross-border cooperation may concern the following areas: health, education, communication/transport, tourism, transport infrastructure, industry, trade promotion, agriculture, environmental protection, energy.
Holistic approach to the cross-border cooperation seems to be the most adequate to solve many economic, social, political, ethnic, religious, cultural and others problem facing contemporary post-Soviet states.
The cross-border cooperation should be directly inspired and carried out by local partners at aimed at promoting peace, security and stability, and opportunities for the acceleration of the integration process and sustainable development on the borderlands.
Paradiplomacy
The cross-border cooperation is a specific type of international cooperation, treated as an element of a country's foreign activity, i.e. one of the aspects of its foreign policy (hence its term): “paradiplomacy”, “bottom-up diplomacy”, “social diplomacy”, “citizen/civic diplomacy”, “small foreign policy”)12.
10 Council of Europe: European Outline Convention of Transfrontier Cooperation Between Territorial Committees of Authorities, Madrid, 21.05.1980, European Treaty Series, 106, Strasbourg - Edition 01.1983.
11 Globalization with a Human Face. UNDP Human Development Report, New York 1999, pp. 1, 3,
29-31.
12 Perforated Sovereignties and International Relations: Trans-Sovereign Contacts of Subnational Governments, ed. by. I.D. Duchacek, D. Latouche, G. Stevenson, New York 1988.
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Paradiplomacy can be defined as - the ability of local authorities to act across national borders by establishing formal and informal, permanent and ad hoc contacts and other forms of international engagement13. The cooperation of territorial units must not go beyond the framework of the competences assigned to them and the tasks performed, with the condition that the activities undertaken are in conflict with national law, international obligations of the state and its foreign policy. In principle, any issue falling within the competence of local and regional authorities, as defined by national law, may be the subject of paralysis.
Paradiplomacy has the external appearance of traditional diplomacy, and in some respects resembles and imitates it. It is, in a way, “next to”, original, classical diplomacy, complements it and is subordinate to it. While emphasizing the link with diplomacy, the term also emphasizes a certain weakness and secondary nature of the foreign activity of local authorities towards the activities of the state. Paradiplomacy is therefore similar to diplomacy, but it is not diplomacy -this is the exclusive competence of the central bodies of the state and one of the attributes of its sovereignty.
Paradiplomacy is an opportunity for social and economic revival of the border peripheries of the country, an element of regional development policy, serving to implement the objectives set out in development strategies. It contributes to sustainable regional development, mainly in the social and economic dimension. It plays an important role in implementing tasks aimed at improving the living conditions of the community living in the region, leads to the exchange of experience e.g. in the field of regional economy management or improvement of the quality of operation of administrative institutions. Indirectly, paradiplomacy should also serve the implementation of diplomatic functions and the objectives of state foreign policy.
Analysing paradiplomacy from the perspective of the science of international relations, it is an attempt to relate the traditionally understood diplomacy to the presence of regions in contemporary international relations. It can be seen through the prism of the creation of new quality international relations, decentralization of international relations and diplomacy and the growing role of non-state actors in international life. Non-state actors play an important role in the international system, including enriching it with new content, broadening its subjective and objective scope; consequently, the dynamics and complexity of the international environment is increasing. Regions are included in the group of non-state (non-state) participants in international relations, and within it, sub-state participants (so-called sub-state territorial units). Seeing the parallel to the state structure of international relations and the growing role of "non-state" participants, the foreign activity of the regions includes them in the network of participants in international relations.
Paradiplomacy over the past decades has undergone a process of legal and political consolidation and normalization, changing the perception of traditional state activity on the international arena. It is an expression of the regions' adaptation to contemporary challenges, enables them to participate in European and international affairs, and is an important manifestation of their self-government. It serves, inter alia, to support the development of the region, increase its economic competitiveness and promote it. The long-term goal of the paradiplomacy is to bring together and get to know each other's communities living in the cooperating regions.
Paradiplomacy is an example of the diversification of the International Relations and the concept of multi-level governance; regions (local governments and citizens) as active actors.
13 About paradiplomacy see: Paradiplomacy in action: the foreign relations subnational governments, ed. by F. Aldecoa, M. Keating, London 1999; A. Kuznetsov, Theory and Practice of Paradiplomacy: Subnational governments in international affairs, London-New York 2015; W.T. Modzelewski, Paradyplomacja regionbw. Studium wojewbdztw Polski Wschodniej (Paradiplomacy of regions. Study of Eastern Poland’s regions), Olsztyn 2016.
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Paradiplomacy means a more holistic approach to the issue of state activity on the international arena. It shows that the modem state is a polyphonic actor, a “multi-actor” whose effective external actions require coordination and cooperation between the government and its structures (including foreign representations) and, to an increasing extent, other, non-state actors, such as business, NGOs, academia or just local governments. Therefore, regions should be seen as important entities of the state's foreign activity, co-shaping its foreign policy and its selfgovernmental dimension. This is important from the point of view of the implementation of foreign policy objectives, including the most important ones defined by the raison d’etat, but also from the point of view of developing the assumptions of this policy.
Paradiplomacy is an important element of activities aimed at strengthening the state, creating its positive image and position on the international arena.
Reflections to the post-Soviet states
In the case of post-Soviet states, in long period term, despite of the lack of real integration links on the borderlands, cross-border cooperation may be considered as a remedy for the bulk of economic, social and political issues. A wide range of common border problems and threats may be solved through the cross-border cooperation.
Borderlands may be rather the source of economic, social and political opportunities for development and stabilization than the division of hostile communities inhabiting them.
The cross-border cooperation is treated not as an aim, but as a tool for achieving the aim. It is based on the involvement of local authorities, NGOs, small private entrepreneurs and ordinary people.
The cross-border cooperation impacts positively international and bilateral relations, regional stabilization and development of the borderland.
The cross-border cooperation could make regions politically more stable and secure and also could stimulate sustainable development on borderlands. The cross-border cooperation could have great contribution, among other things, to: minimization of border conflicts; limit of “unwilling” migrations, mutual understanding between borderland inhabitants; shaping new common borderland identity, empowerment of self-governing (local governments); economic development; labour market; stimulation of education and cultural exchange; mutual initiatives in transport and telecommunication infrastructure and environment protection.
In the case of the post-Soviet states the experiences of Euro-regions, but necessarily must take into account regional and local specifics.
The borderlands as regions of cooperation constitute the realization of the idea of integration from the bottom. This will foster a process of open borders, which in turn will lead to a real acceleration of integration processes. Moreover, on both sides of the border it is possible to start the process of mutual understanding, especially among the young generation.
The cross-border cooperation could be regarded as a sine qua non condition of regional development, integration and stability. New approach should be absolutely based on the rank-and-file initiatives and should be implemented under the principle of subsidiarity. New positive perspective should be not only scientific approach but first of all a political concept - the postSoviet states borderlands should be the regions of cooperation.
The establishment of cross-border cooperation plays an undoubtedly important role in the development of good neighbourly cooperation between countries, and has the practical content of this cooperation at its lowest level, reflecting the degree of genuine openness and rapprochement between countries.
The borderlands as regions of cooperation are the implementation of the idea of bottom-up integration. This will support the process of opening state borders, and open borders are a real acceleration of integration processes. On both sides of the border/borders the process of shaping positive climate between communities can be initiated, especially among the young generation.
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It is important to promote and implement the idea of cross-border co-operation in the postSoviet states as an area not only peaceful coexistence but development. The long term aim is to support cross-border cooperation to make peaceful, prosperous and open borders.
Of course, to implement the idea of cross-border cooperation despite long and deep hostilities between some nations and new formed post-Soviet states the political will must appeared and practical political decisions concerning borders and borderlands should be made.
As it was said, Europe and especially the European Union could be a good example of the results of the cross-border cooperation.
The role of paradiplomacy is fundamental. The effect of paradiplomacy may be a mutual acquaintance and rapprochement between communities of different countries, which may lead to the extinction of existing antagonisms, elimination of negative stereotypes, increased tolerance for different kinds of differences (cultural, national, religious) and cultural enrichment between communities establishing authentic grassroots ties.
Paradiplomacy is as an important element in strengthening regional stability, which is particularly important in conflict areas. It can sometimes be treated as an instrument for creating a balance of power in the region (opposing the strengthening of a state’s influence at the expense of others) and for strengthening one’s own position in the region. The role of “citizen diplomacy” is underlined as a sine qua non condition to ease hostility and tension between communities on the borderland.
Paradiplomacy may be considered as a response to the dangers posed by globalization and the foreign policy of world and regional state powers.
ԺԱՄԱՆԱԿԱԿԻՑ ՍԱՀՄԱՆԱՅԻՆ ՏԱՐԱԾՔՆԵՐԸ ԵՎ ՄԻՋՍԱՀՄԱՆԱՅԻՆ ՀԱՄԱԳՈՐԾԱԿՑՈՒԹՅԱՆ ՈՒ ՊԱՐԱԴԻՎԱՆԱԳԻՏՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԳԱՂԱՓԱՐԸ.
ՄՏՈՐՈՒՄՆԵՐ ՀԵՏԽՈՐՀՐԴԱՅԻՆ ՊԵՏՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՆԵՐԻ ՀԱՄԱՐ
ԱՐԿԱԴԻՈՒՇ ԺՈՒԿՈՎՍԿԻ
Վարմիա և Մազուրի համասլարանի քաղաքական գիտությունների ինստիտուտի տնօրեն, քաղաքական գիտությունների դոկտոր, պրոֆեսոր, ք. Օլշտին, Լեհաստան
Հոդվածում ներկայացվում է ժամանակակից աշխարհում սահմանների ու սահմանամերձ տարածքների կարևորությունը' մասնավորապես Խորհրդային Միության սահմանած սահմաններն ընդունած հետխորհրդային նորանկախ պետությունների համար հետևանքների ընդգծումով: Քննարկվում է սահմանների և սահմանամերձ տարածքների նոր դերը՝ նոր տարածաշրջանագիտության տեսական մոտեցմումներին համապատասխան՝ կապված մի քանի հետխորհրդային պետությունների հետ: Միջսահմանային համագործակցությունը բնորոշվում ու ներկայացվում է սահմանամերձ տարածքներում տարբեր հիմնախնդիրների լուծման համատեքստում:
Միջսահմանային համագործակցությունը վերլուծվում է պարադիվանագիտության լույսի ներքո և ժամանակակից միջազգային հարաբերությունների վրա ունեցած ազդեցությամբ: Եզրակացության մեջ ներկայացվում է մերձսահմանային
համագործակցության գաղափարի և պարադիվանագիտության իրականացման անհրաժեշտությունը, որն ուղեկցվում է հետխորհրդային պետությունների համար հեղինակի մտորումներով ու առաջարկություններով:
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Հիմնաբառեր' սահմանամերձ տարածք, միջսահմանային համագործակցություն, պարադիվանագիտություն, նոր տարածաշրջանագիտություն, հետխորհրդային պետություններ:
СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ПОГРАНИЧНЫЕ ТЕРРИТОРИИ И ИДЕЯ ПРИГРАНИЧНОГО СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВА И ПАРАДИПЛОМАТИИ: НЕКОТОРЫЕ РАЗМЫШЛЕНИЯ ДЛЯ ПОСТСОВЕТСКИХ
ГОСУДАРСТВ
АРКАДИУШ ЖУКОВСКИ
Директор Института политических наук Варминско-Мазурского университета, доктор политических наук, профессор, г.Ольштын, Польша
В статье подчеркивается важность границ и пограничных территорий в современном мире, в частности, последствия для новых независимых постсоветских государств, принявших границы, установленные Советским Союзом. Рассматривается новая роль границ и пограничных территорий в соответствии с теоретическим подходом нового регионализма с некоторой привязкой к постсоветским государствам. Трансграничное сотрудничество определено и представлено в контексте решения различных проблем на пограничных территориях.
Трансграничное сотрудничество анализируется через призму парадипломатии и ее значения в современных международных отношениях. В заключении представлена необходимость реализации идеи приграничного сотрудничества и парадипломатии, подкрепленная размышлениями и рекомендациями автора для постсоветских государств.
Ключевые слова: пограничье, трансграничное сотрудничество, парадипломатия, новый регионализм, постсоветские государства.
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