CC BY
26
Copyright © 2023 by Cherkas Global University
★ ★ ★
★ * ★ Published in the USA
1 (Mediaobrazovanie) since 2005
Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie)
E-ISSN 1994-4195
2023. 19(1): 171-178
DOI: 10.13187/me.2023.1.171 https://me.cherkasgu.press
The Construction of Feminist Movement Culture for Tackling Casual Sexism on Twitter
Frans Sayogie a , *, Ika Amalia a, Nabilah Raisa a, Pasha Sabila a a Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Indonesia
Abstract
This study investigates the phenomena of casual sexism that goes undetected in several tweets, comments, and other forms on Twitter and its relation to feminist movement culture. The study aims to analyze the tweet, comments, or texts that contain casual sexism and examine the data by looking at the feminist movement culture to prevent the existence of casual sexism on social media. The theory of feminism, which is formed from several feminist movements connected to attempts to eradicate gender-based discrimination and prejudice that mostly affects women daily, is used in this study. The result shows that, the feminist movement culture has a big role in realizing gender equality not only in society but also in social media. From several tweets containing casual sexism, it was found that each of these accounts voiced their opinion regarding the casual sexism phenomenon they encountered. In conclusion, Twitter has become a platform for many people to express themselves and voice opinions through writing and images. The data was collected in the form of texts, comments, and tweets on Twitter. Furthermore, whether intentionally or unintentionally, the feminist movement exists and keeps expanding in order to achieve gender equality and take steps to prevent casual sexism.
Keywords: casual sexism, feminism culture, feminist movement, gender equality, social media.
1. Introduction
Casual sexism has become a phenomenon that usually occurs in society which has now spread to social media. Feminist culture provides a movement that gives a new perspective to society on preventing casual sexism. The common perception of feminism is a movement that argues for greater options for women in their daily lives, such as more opportunity, freedom, and less controlled positions. Women can freely choose to work or stay at home, get married or not, and have children as the world becomes an equal place. This form of feminism seems empowering, warm, and enthusiastic (Thwaites, 2017). There are diverse kinds of "feminism" in use, and depending on their political stance, academics may conceptualize "feminist" differently. However, it may be argued that two commonalities can be recognized in academic feminism as a whole, taken in its broadest meaning. In the beginning, it is a political movement that focuses on examining gender, or how men and women come to build themselves, their identities, and their perceptions of others. Second, it is a movement that seeks to eliminate gender inequality as its fundamental emancipatory goal (Mills, Louise, 2011).
* Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F. Sayogie)
171
Today's social media presence influences communication in public spaces, especially in how users form opinions. Simple, inexpensive, and rapid interaction methods have led many communities, authorities, institutions, and individuals to use social media as a medium of expression and information. Classified as a new medium, social media attracts many people's attention and provides an opportunity for those who want to start a social movement (Ariani, 2021) Because of the pervasiveness of these platforms, such as Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and numerous others, many social and cultural activities have moved online. Social media is often linked with innovation and social development, yet it also replicates the same gendered power relations that determine "offline" spaces (Sills et al., 2016). Gendered media issues have taken various forms, particularly since the Internet and social networking sites.
Nearly 60 % of the world's population is connected to the internet and participates in various online activities. Therefore, the internet provides an extended virtual environment for sexual cognitions to survive offline and into the online world, potentially increasing gender inequality and discrimination. Because of the desensitization of internet content, feminist scholars are concerned about the emergence of a new form of sexism incorporated into the internet (Ze, Panneerselvam, 2021). Feminists battle sexism in various ways, the most important of which is when they confront exploitation, harassment, and objectification in various settings, such as the workplace, the home, the family, and public places. In particular, women and their allies may organize large-scale feminist movements that jointly attack the underlying basis of male supremacy. These movements can be found from time to time. Participation is vital for the development and continued existence of social movements. During the ups and downs of protest cycles, movement commanders are continuously challenged with finding and retaining new supporters. For potential activists' development, acquisition, and engagement, feminist social movements rely on well-established networks and organizations. Many different institutional and contextual social ties can encourage people to participate in feminist activism (Swank, Fahs, 2017)
Women are thought to be less literate than men. She stated that language looks at it from an essentialist perspective. That is, looking at differences in male and female language due to gender and gender differences (Mulyani, 2014). Discussions of sexism, equality, and women's rights become more fraught as women all over the country - and the world - find new ways to use the internet to advance the unfinished revolution of feminism. Since many theorists argue that we are now in a post-feminist era where gender equality has been achieved, people who complain about sexism put themselves in the line of fire for persistent and sometimes cruel attacks (Melville et al., 2019). Feminist research must require the ability to generalize about language and gender. However, the generalizations we make need to be adjusted to acknowledge that not all women and men behave in the same way. Any shift toward "global" generalization and away from "local" study has substantial methodological significance.
In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist activists and academics questioned some of the more blatantly sexist elements of the English language. Feminists argued that these phrases reaffirm the notion that men are the human norm by rendering women invisible. In addition, feminists have claimed that sexist language promotes gender inequality by reinforcing harmful preconceptions and giving legitimacy to discriminatory practices. Thus, the movement to eradicate sexism in language was seen as a microcosm of the greater feminist struggle for gender equity. Critics of sexist language, particularly women, have been ridiculed and informed or lectured that they should know that terms like "policeman" and "fireman" apply to both sexes and that "mankind" is a catchall term for humanity (Kleinman et al., 2021). Alternatively, even if English had a hint of sexism in its concentration on men, this was not enough to support alterations that would detract from the beauty of the language. In other words, linguistically stated concerns for gender equity were less relevant than anything else.
Gender and feminist discourses were used to trivialize the campaign, demonize feminist campaigners, and depoliticize the concerns. Ironically, the remarks deny and practice misogyny online. This intertwining of sexism denial and practice makes public feminist voices unwelcome, potentially limiting mediated culture's ability to combat it (Benton-Greig et al., 2017). ). "Friendly" sexist teases (FSTs) are playful intergroup teases based on negative gender stereotypes that lower the value of one's gender group and assume that those teased by someone less close will focus on the literal content of the sexist tease, which lowers gender self-esteem (Hack T et al., 2020). These findings explained FSTs. The viability of employing machine learning methods (both conventional and trimming deep learning models) for automatically identified various sexist behaviors, and it is
proven that sexism can be easily identified using deep learning techniques and that it can be present in a variety of forms and behaviors in social networks (Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2020).
2. Materials and methods
This research explores how feminist movement culture tackles casual sexism on Twitter. This research used descriptive qualitative by finding and understanding comments, statements, and texts on several Twitter accounts that indicate casual sexism. This research data is collected by observing the text with a critical understanding of feminism theory and focusing on the phenomena of casual sexism that occur in everyday life. The researchers applied a feminist theory approach to further explore, examine, and explain this issue. Feminism is a women's movement that speaks about gender equality and rejects the difference in degrees between men and women (Wallstonecraff, 1972). The feminist movement wants to change the social construction of how women should be treated equally without discrimination and have the same opportunities as men, especially in developing themselves. One of the uses of the feminist movement is to tackle casual sexism, which is usually found in daily life or on social media. It can be challenging to call out subtle sexism because of its potential for obscurity and because once it is embedded in daily life, it becomes internalized and is seen as "normal" behavior.
3. Discussion
The domination of patriarchy is experienced by many people, especially in their lack of access to decision-making. This puts the condition of women under men's control, which makes them powerless to the point of being discriminated against because of the power of men who dominate them. Due to gender, duties, obligations, and the division of labor between men and women are differentiated and regarded as suitable by customs, norms, beliefs, or habits (Molony, 2020). This condition makes gender equality highly sought after by women. The realization of gender equality cannot be separated from the feminist movement, which is committed to rejecting gender inequality towards women to achieve gender equality. Women fight for their rights to be equal to men, such as the right to be free from discrimination, freedom from torture, the right to life, the right to privacy, and others.
Since gender is a social construct, the media can make changes to improve gender equality. With the help of social media, chances for sharing information and freedom of speech are now more widely available than before. Because social media is viewed as a simple and quick medium, it is particularly successful at delivering information widely and is growing in popularity. Women's use of social media is a place where they can raise their voices and feel heard. Social media is a crucial forum for promoting democratic feminism for users, especially women (Syamili, Rekha, 2021).
Rep. Jennifer O'Mara O
@RepOMara
Last night, I proudly joined @RepMGS & @SenTimKearney at the annual Delaware County Fireman's Association Banquet. I am so grateful to our firefighters for showing up for our community day in & day out. Thank you for all you do!
Fig. 1. "Last night, I proudly joined @RepMGS & @SenTimKearney at the Delaware County Fireman's Association Banquet. I am so grateful to our firefighters for showing up for our community day in & day out. Thank you for all you do!" Tweet from @RepOMara
The tweet reflects the use of the word tackling casual sexism. Tweets are usually used to express a user's opinion on a topic or problem (Syamili, Rekha, 2021). For instance, the tweet's use of the phrase "firefighters" denotes the construction of the feminist movement. Instead of "fireman" or "firewoman," the term "firefighters" is far more appropriate to express the acts of bravery it indicates. This also makes people's perception of work that requires courage not only be done by men. Furthermore, this breaks the stereotype that, in contrast to boys, girls should not engage in certain behaviors since they are looked upon by society (Kayal, Seena, 2019).
Casual sexism is a serious matter and must be stopped because it reflects discrimination against gender. In this case, using the word "firefighters" in the tweet above ensures that women are equally represented in a role since they were enrolled with the same tests, underwent the same training, and had the same standards to evaluate them. We must increase awareness of gender
stereotypes that occur in this era, especially on social media, because it strongly impacts people's mental processes as individuals and as members of a global community (Kayal, Seena, 2019).
*f W @Azzanator1 Replying to ©shaimaxeyguy
Throught this was the Womans teams based on the scores
17:13 • 16 Oct 22 • Twitter for Android
Fig. 2. "Throught this was the womans teams based on the scores," Tweet from @Azzanaton
This tweet is a reply to the @shaimaxeyguy account, which tweeted, "happy 2 years anniversary to an absolute classic," and attached a photo of the result of the match from Port Adelaide vs. Richmond with a score of 40:46. The @Azzanator1 account argued that from the score, the match was played by the women's team because the scores were way too high compared to the men's team matches which usually do not produce that many scores.
Gender equality in various sectors, especially sports, is very unfortunate. Labeling and social construction that considers women weaker than men mentally and physically cause discrimination against women. The general stereotype is that women's sports are less valuable than men's. Women athletes are constantly placed to lower standards and do not earn as much respect as male athletes. Due to the stereotype that males are more athletically gifted, women's athletes frequently receive lower pay. Even on social media that often featured both male and women athletes, men were more often associated with the image of athletes and active. In contrast, women athletes are more often represented in non-sporting images (Litchfield, Kavanagh, 2018). There are not so many sports news and images that highlight the representation of women. Many misleading and dangerous articles about women athletes are published (McLachlan, 2019). The feminist movement makes it possible to realize that women are equal to men. Like men, women can play well and should be provided with proper facilities in sports.
^Adam Wet
I just finished picking up the kids, making dinner, cleaning the house and taking the kids to get their halloween costumes after working... @nilikm lets call out these ladies casual sexism for what it is
Fig. 3. "I just finished picking up the kids, making dinner, cleaning the house and taking the kids to get their halloween costumes after working... @nilik_lets call out these ladies casual sexism for what it is," tweet from @DoubleD_i983
Based on the tweet above indicates that there is a form of a feminist cultural movement to tackle casual sexism carried out by a Twitter account user named @DoubleD_1983. That the work of cooking, taking care of the house, picking up children, and cleaning the house proves that the Twitter user denied that women only carried out these activities, but men could also do these jobs. This is a form of gender equality carried out by Twitter account users to tackle casual sexism. In feminist culture, this has provided a language for deconstructing gender ideologies that have limited how men and women are positioned in the social structure. These ideologies have played a role in determining how men and women have been able to contribute to society. (Kelley, 2022) Because in everyday life, it is often encountered and takes the form of natural but unnatural things. It is becoming more widely recognized and understood that everyday sexism has become so ingrained in many of our daily lives and routines that it frequently goes unnoticed. As a result, it has normalized in society (Nichols, 2018).
Based on a tweet in the data shows the casual sexism experienced by a woman named Audrey Woosman. This shows the actions of bank employees who prioritize men over women as the owners of bank accounts. Because the stereotype depicted is that men can lead, be competitive, have self-confidence, be objective, be aggressive, be forceful, have ambition, and want to take responsibility. On the other hand, women are typically associated with characteristics that relate to a concern for the compassionate treatment of others. These qualities include being affectionate, helpful, friendly, kind, and empathetic, having a sensitive demeanor toward others, speaking softly, and being gentle (Tabassum, Nayak, 2021).
f ^ Audrey Woosnam
Joe and I walked into a bank and opened a joint checking account yesterday. The dude at the bank, without asking, made Joe the primary account holder. And generally addressed him not me. Casual sexism and misogyny alive and well.
Fig. 4. "Joe and I walked into a bank and opened a joint checking account yesterday. The dude at the bank, without asking, made Joe the primary account holder. And generally addressed him not me. Casual sexism and misogyny alive and well," tweet from @snowflake_aw.
Bank employees should put women in equal positions to build gender equality. This needs to be realized in each individual, that the importance of gender equality in the role of feminist culture to equalize the role of women. Because women and men, as well as girls and boys, have the same rights, responsibilities, and opportunities in all areas of life (Barreiro-Gen et al., 2021).
Daniela Witten @daniela_witten • Oct 16
When I tell a tech bro that I am a professor of statistics, they often immediately inform me that I am a teacher professor, not a researcher professor. I say no, I am a professor professor, I do research and teach, but mostly research. Then they tell me- oh but I'm an UNDERGRAD
Fig. 5. "When I tell a tech bro that I am a professor of statistics, they often immediately inform me that I am a teacher professor, not a researcher professor. I say no, I am a professor. I do research and teach, but mostly research. Then they tell me- oh but I'm an Undergrad," tweet from @daniela_witten.
The tweet above is a form of casual sexism in education experienced by Daniela's Twitter account. In her tweet, she mentioned that she is a research professor. Still, they refer to her as a teacher professor, which shows that Daniela, a woman, cannot have a research professor degree, so they often call her a teacher professor. This shows the existence of casual sexism based on gender inequality that women do not deserve a higher education than men. Men have historically held the majority of positions in academic careers. Recent studies show that women academics are less competitive, less confident, and more likely to give up after rejection than men. According to this literature, women are less likely to apply for faculty posts, promotions, professorship, or habilitation. Women academics are less internationally mobile than males. They are significantly disadvantaged in dual-career families and subject to severe conflicts between work and family life that put their relationships in danger (Moratti, 2021). Despite progress in the twenty-first century, women continue to face more significant obstacles than males while trying to obtain research funding and advance to the full professor position (Roos et al., 2020).
Ed«l Harris OBE (SWHor)
Believe it or not there are some female #CEOs in the world # @thetimes 'How to get a CEO body -16 foods all men should be eating!!' ©
Fig. 6. "Believe it or not there are some female #CEOs in the world @thetimes 'How to get a CEO body - 16 foods all men should be eating!!'." tweet from @Edelharris
Regarding Figure 6, the tweet reflects the sexism that occurs in the news headlines column. Based on the news, it was written that a CEO who is mostly male, is advised to eat selected food in order to achieve a proportional body. The tweet also explains that the headline news is categorized as casual sexism or everyday sexism because the use of the word 'men' which is juxtaposed with CEO makes the public think that CEOs are only men. In fact, a CEO can of course be a woman, so it can be seen from the tweet that there is a protest over the casual sexism that is happening. It is widely believed that the establishment of "Fourth Wave" feminism resulted from the understanding in the twenty-first century that the "sexism" that Second Wave Feminists campaigned against will be continued (Smith, 2018)
The casual sexism phenomenon that occurs on Twitter is closely related to the feminist movement which aims to achieve gender equality. When men and women accept traditional gender norms as fair, normal, and unavoidable, gender hierarchies are sustained. Therefore, sexism in society must be prevented by loudly advocating for gender equality in the workplace.
175
0 Larry L'Oismu Blanc & fflnriaiidliFull
etaurenceTlwBird
#CasualSexism but no one cares because it is men's bodies being ridiculed. Imagine if two melons were on sale and the pack resembled a woman....
Fig. 7 "#CasualSexism but no one cares because it is men's bodies being ridiculed. Imagine if two melons were on sale and the pack resembled a woman" tweet from @LaurenceTheBird
Body parts are frequently the focus of misogyny in our culture. We are made the targets of sexism as well as the environment. There is a loaf of bread that resembles a male body part. If this were to occur to a woman, a different reaction would arise. This is supported by a tweet from the user @LaurenceTheBird, who expressed his thoughts on the bread's packaging. Because it uses a visual representation of the male body that is already frequently seen in the public, no one feels insulted and believes it to be a normal thing.
Organizations associated with the women's movement have remained supportive of a wide range of cultural endeavors, including those undertaken by next era of feminists. Because they reach not only political but cultural institutions and try to rally around issues like sexual harassment, violence, sexual abuse, self-esteem, eating disorders, gender identity, the environment, globalization, and sexism in art, music, film, and mass culture, third wave feminists' actions are not always targeted at or recognizable to the state. (Staggenborg, Suzanne, 2005) Therefore, this feminist movement has become a culture that will eliminate the generalization of actions based on gender as happened in the packaging of the bread.
Link iiaTerfWV «IStandWithAmberHe
®Hermion®G.GCF
Replying to «»MalesOiReddi? and ««LadieLabrys
The casual sexism of reacting to a baby crying with "where's the mum" instead of "where are the parents" because dads exist and they are also responsible for raising their kids but I guess gender neutral language isn't required for validating men's femininity fetish.
16:41 22 Oct 22 Twitter for Android
Fig. 8 "The casual sexism of reacting to a baby crying with "where's the mum" instead of "where are the parents" because dads exist and they are also responsible for raising their kids but I guess gender neutral language isn't required for validating men's femininity fetish." Tweet from @HermioneG_GCF
The background of casual sexism in this case involves parents, where activities throughout the name of gender still occur, especially when it comes to parenthood. The raising of children is the duty of the parents. However, as stated in the tweet, it demonstrates how casual sexism takes place in an emergency case when a child cries and the mother is the first-person others search for, even while the child's father is nearby. The question of why the mother should be chosen above the father, who also plays an essential part in the development of the kid, arises. For this equality, feminism campaigns. The feminist movement has made a contribution to preventing casual sexism like this from occurring once more. By focusing on both parents in the tweet's situation rather than just one, the public — which had previously accepted these behaviors as normal — can become aware of their surroundings and comprehend that raising children is a responsibility shared by both parents, ending the practice of gender-based behaviors and employment.
4. Results
In this digital era, Twitter is one of the most widely used social media to express opinions and thoughts, share sessions, use storytelling media, etc. Whether consciously or not, the problem of casual sexism is very close to life and is often found on social media; it is Twitter. Using a feminist approach to see casual forms of sexism on Twitter and to see tweets written either intentionally or unintentionally, consciously or consciously. The result shows that the tweets, comments, and statements contain casual sexism, which is the feminist cultural movement's role in tackling casual sexism as a form of gender neutralization for both men and women. The attitude taken from the feminist movement is to construct gender equality in the tweets that have been found. The construction carried out by the feminist cultural movement to counteract the tendency towards
only one gender, or one gender that is considered superior and considers other genders inferior, therefore what needs to be emphasized here is gender neutralization. That both men and women have the same opportunity to obtain anything.
5. Conclusion
The existence of Twitter as a social media platform certainly has various purposes and benefits. The public can provide opinions and aspirations on various events that occur on Twitter which will certainly bring up pros and cons. There are many discussions that arise from the most general to specific terms such as those related to gender. If it is more specific, it can be in the form of gender equality, gender inequality, gender stereotypes and many more. Talking about gender equality and its problems such as casual sexism is a phenomenon that exists in society but seems to have been normalized. Casual sexism can happen anywhere, even on social media. On Twitter, casual sexism occurs in the form of a tweet where the account speaks about the existence of this casual sexism. This phenomenon mostly occurs in women so that a feminist movement is formed that will prevent this casual sexism. This feminist movement has a role in realizing gender equality and to prevent acts of casual sexism that see behavior based on gender. Moreover, sexism that occurs on social media is a natural thing to happen and is normalized by society. The feminism movement will help close the gap between the prevention of sexism that happens in everyday life or "casual sexism," which is an act that must be prevented because it affects people's perceptions of a stereotype that arises against gender. Furthermore, whether intentionally or unintentionally, the feminist movement exists and keeps expanding in order to achieve gender equality and take steps to prevent casual sexism.
References
Ariani, 2021 - Ariani, D. (2021). Construction of Feminism and Gender Equality in Social Media. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute Journal. 4: 12.
Barrerio-Gen et al., 2021 - Barreiro-Gen, M., Lozano, R., Temel, M., Carpenter, A. (2021). Gender equality for sustainability in ports: Developing a framework. Marine Policy. 131: 104593. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104593
Benton-Greig et al., 2017 - Benton-Greig, P., Gamage, D., Gavey, N. (2017). Doing and denying sexism: Online responses to a New Zealand feminist campaign against sexist advertising. Feminist Media Studies. 18(3): 349-365. DOI: 10.1080/14680777.2017.1367703
Hack T et al., 2020 - Hack, T, Garcia, A.L., Goodfriend, W., Habashi, M.M., Hoover, A.E. (2020). When it is not so funny: prevalence of friendly sexist teasing and consequences to gender self-esteem. Psychological Reports. 123(5): 1934-1965. DOI: 10.1177/0033294119896045
Kayal, Seena, 2019 - Kayal, S., Seena. J. (2019). Depiction of gender inequalities in animation films: An Indian scenario. DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2019.1.11
Kelley, 2022 - Kelley, M. S. (2022). Feminism and firearms: gun ownership, gun carrying, and women's empowerment. Sociological Perspectives. 65(1): 77-96. DOI: 10.1177/07311214211028603
Kleinman et al., 2021 - Kleinman, S., Copp, M., Wilson, K. B. (2021). We've Come a Long Way, Guys! Rhetorics of Resistance to the Feminist Critique of Sexist Language. Gender & Society. 35(1): 61-84. DOI: 10.1177/0891243220979636
Litchfield, Kavanagh, 2018 - Litchfield, C., Kavanagh, E. (2018). Twitter, team GB and the Australian Olympic team: representations of gender in social media spaces. Sport in Society. 1-17. DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2018.1504775
McLachlan, F., 2019 - McLachlan, F. (2019). It's boom time! (again): Progress narratives and women's sport in Australia. Journal of Australian Studies. 43(1): 7-21. DOI: 10.1080/144430
58.2019.157526
Melville et al., 2019 - Melville, S., Eccles, K., Yasseri, T. (2019). Topic Modeling of Everyday Sexism Project Entries. Frontiers in Digital Humanities. 5: 28. DOI: 10.3389/fdigh.2018.00028
Mills, Louise, 2011 - Mills, S., Louise, M. (2011). Language, gender and feminism. New York: Routledge.
Molony, 2020 - Molony, B. (2020). Feminism and gender construction in modern Asia. In A Companion to Global Gender History. John Wiley & Sons: 525-544. DOI: 10.1002/978111
9535812.ch32
Moratti, 2021 - Moratti, S. (2021). A woman's place is in the 'home'? Gender-specific hiring patterns in academia in gender-equal Norway. Journal of Sociology. 57(4): 916-934. DOI: 10.1177/1440783320960530
Mulyani, 2014 - Mulyani, S. (2014). Language and gender: toward a critical feminist linguistics. SELT. 7.
Nichols, 2018 - Nichols, K. (2018). Moving beyond ideas of laddism: Conceptualising 'mischievous masculinities' as a new way of understanding everyday sexism and gender relations. Journal of Gender Studies. 27(1): 73-85. DOI: 10.1080/09589236.2016.1202815
Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2020 - F. Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. Carrillo-de-Albornoz and L. Plaza, (2020). Automatic Classification of Sexism in Social Networks: An Empirical Study on Twitter Data. IEEE Access. 8: 219563-219576. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3042604
Roos et al., 2020 - Roos, H, Mampaey, J., Huisman, J., Luyckx, J. (2020). The Failure of Gender Equality Initiatives in Academia: Exploring Defensive Institutional Work in Flemish Universities. Gender & Society. 34(3): 467-495. DOI: 10.1177/0891243220914521
Sills et al., 2016 - Sills, S., Pickens, C., Beach, K., Jones, L., Calder-Dawe, O., Benton-Greig, P., Gavey, N. (2016). Rape culture and social media: Young critics and a feminist counterpublic. Feminist Media Studies. 16(6): 935-951. DOI: 10.1080/14680777.2015.1137962
Smith, 2018 - Smith, A. (2018). Gender in "crisis", everyday sexism and the Twittersphere. In A. Smith. Crisis and the Media. John Benjamins Publishing Company: 231-259. DOI: 10.1075/dapsac.76.11smi
Staggenborg, Suzanne, 2005 - Staggenborg, S., Taylor, V. (2005). Whatever Happened to The Women's Movement?: 37-52. DOI: 10.17813/maiq.10.1.46245r7082613312
Swank, Fahs, 2017 - Swank, E., Fahs, B. (2017). Understanding Feminist Activism among Women: Resources, Consciousness, and Social Network. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World': 1-9.
Syamili, Rekha, 2021 - Syamili, C., Rekha, R.V. (2021). Twitter and social movement: An analysis of tweets in response to the #metoo challenge. DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2021.1.231
Tabassum, Nayak, 2021 - Tabassum, N., Nayak, B.S. (2021). Gender stereotypes and their impact on women's career progressions from a managerial perspective. IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review. 10(2): 192-208. DOI: 10.1177/2277975220975513
Thwaites, 2017 - Thwaites, R. (2017). Making a choice or taking a stand? Choice feminism, political engagement, and the contemporary feminist movement. SAGE Journals: 55-68.
Wollstonecraft, 1972 - Wollstonecraft, M. (1972). A vindication of the rights of woman. Printed for J. Johnson.
Ze, Panneerselvam, 2021 - Ze, T.K., Panneerselvam, I.B. (2021). Reinforcing or Resisting? A Study on the Influence of Internet Memes on Sexism Among University Students in Penang. JCIMC. 1: 31.
