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THE CONCEPT AND HISTORY OF SOCIAL EDUCATION IN JAPAN
T. Matsuda
The report deals with the issues of social education historical way; the paper focuses on the main concepts of social education, the role and meaning of community values in social education.
Key words: social education, lifelong learning, Kominkan (community education center), community development, self-education, socialization of education, sozialpadagogik.
The two aspects of social education in Japan. Social education and lifelong learning in Japan are often socially recognized as the types of learning for self-fulfillment including learning based on culture and hobbies. It is quite true that these types of education often have such elements. Accordingly, the abovementioned education and learning styles are regarded as personal affairs and, as a result, considered personal expenses. It is difficult to regard the fields of social education and lifelong learning as the kinds of education and learning that should be paid by public taxes under the present financial crisis of local authorities. In the field of social education, at Kominkan(community education center) in particular, self-fulfilling educational activities centering on culture and hobbies have spread since the 1960s, and furthermore, owing to the spread of lifelong learning since the late 1980s, the learning activities through the study program have become generalized(l).
On the other hand, the tradition of the practice of collaborative learning(Kyocfo Gakusyu), which has been practiced by the people willing to solve the tasks of the community based on the practical living in the community, has been succeeded and it was seen in the activities at Kominkan after World War II. However, the learning activities of this type are less likely to be recognized as social education in society, but only as a minor part of social education(2).
At present, under the decentralization policy, Kominkan were transferred from the board of education to the local chief bureau, and it is strongly positioned as a community facility (facility for the development of the community). However, leading up to this, there was recognition concerning social education and lifelong learning, as shown in (1) above. In other words, the local authorities could not afford to maintain Kominkan as an education and cultural facility, so they wanted to reposition it as a base facility depending upon the self-reliant efforts of the community. This change reflects the historical aspect that there has been no recognition concerning Kominkan having a deep involvement in the development of the community, as shown in (2). Actually, most of Kominkan have self-limited their functions to education and cultural activities. As a result, it often causes a myopic idea that adult learning based on culture and hobbies should be performed at the users’ cost and Kominkan should play a role of regional development as a public facility.
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The historical concept of social education. “Social education” is a coined word that combines “society” and “education.” It is a concept that education is connected to society, which means it’s based on the consciousness of society and takes society as its target. At this point, social education in Japan is different from adult education in the UK etc., which emphasizes general education. However, as a tool for the general public to access education, the elements of hobbies and entertainment were also integrated into social education. In addition, to cultivate citizens who take important parts in civil society, general education was also included in social education. On the other hand, from the viewpoint of nationalism, social education was considered as a tool to deal with social problems. Meanwhile, it is utilized to promote community development.
Nowadays, social education is mainly comprehended as adult education in Japan. In addition, out-of-school education is also included. However, if we were to trace the descent, it would be different. Social education was also understood as a kind of education that was consciously in relation with society and could cultivate the society.
From the 1870s to the 1920s, the historical concept of social education was formed in different directions. After World War II, the development of theories and practices was limited in education for youth and adults. In the age of the welfare country when it was under a smooth economic development, this kind of social education played its role effectively, to a certain extent. However, in the present risk society, the adult education-based social education, which was supported by the welfare country, is also placed in an unstable situation. To resist the instability and have a fine view of contemporary society, it is necessary to re-define social education.
Therefore, it is important to reconsider social education via the historical understanding of social education. Along this clue, I will begin by reviewing the four historical genealogies of social education.
First, the thought of social education proposed as self-education was introduced in 1877 by Y. Fukuzawa(1835-1901). The self-education-based social education, of which the middle class is the backbone, showed the prototype of social education in modern Japan. After that, U. Kawamoto (1888-1960) systematized the self-education-based social education in the late 1920s. His theory of self-education was affected by P. Natorp. It was considered a great and powerful theory of social education after World War II. In the past, when the theory of self-education was discussed as essential to social education, there was a tendency to consider that it was formed in the post-war democratic climate. However, we have already observed its indications from the thought of social education proposed by Y. Fukuzawa. After the trials of history, self-education-based social education was formed. This kind of social education was widely accepted by the general public during the period of the post-war economic growth. Through the historical view, we could not only understand the theory of selfeducation from the perspective of right to learn, but also get the diversity and contradictions inside its thoughts and activities. That is to say that the self-education-based social education is the first genealogy of the theory of social education.
Secondly, in the 1880s, another theory of social education emerged as a means to supply school education and facilitate school attendance rates. Then, the theory of social education, which was an intimate connection with school
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education, was developed. After that, the theory of social education for education reform was developed by K. Norisugi (1878-1947, the first chief of the social education sector) in the beginning of the 1920s. On the other hand, in this genealogy, social education was placed subordinate to school education. However, it is obvious in Norisugi’s theory that social education, which could alter school education and lead the education reform, in other words, “the socialization of school” as an advanced function of social education, was highlighted. This has become a criticism to the restricted concept of social education until today, and is taken as an established theory that social education is out-of-school education. Today, Norisugi’s theory of social education has become one of the ideological backgrounds of the idea of cooperation and fusion between school education and social education, and the opening of schools.
The third genealogy is the theory of “The socialization of education, and the education (schooling) of society.” J. Yamana (1864-1957), who wrote Social Education (in Japanese), the first book on that subject in Japan, was the root of this thought. Also, it was formulated by the bureaucrats in the fourth sector of the Ministry of Education (the first sector of social education, 1919-1924). This theory emerged in the late 1910s, and then was shared among the fourth sector led by Norisugi. The theory of social education, which does not only include the out-of-school education, but also emphasizes its social function, was developed as a kind of “educational relief” linking to the theory of “equal opportunities in education.” This theory of social education was combined with the educational security for the children who were excluded from the school education system, such as the challenged children, needy children and juvenile delinquents. After the Russo-Japanese War, social education in Japan was in close relation with social work (social welfare). By the 1920s, a part of welfare has been included in social education.
The fourth genealogy is the theory of social education which is supposed to perform the function of facilitating community development since the late 1880s. It was genuinely implemented through the Community-Based Reform Movement initiated by the Ministry of Interior. As we can see, the phrase of social education in Yamana’s theory was in relation with “the amelioration of society” and “the popularity of education.” Social education was combined with the idea that takes the improvement of society and the improvement of education as a whole in communities. It was also developed as a concept that combines the functions of both education and community promotion. This concept of social education was inherited by Kominkan after World War II and aroused a lot of discussion about the theory of social education for community development. In the contemporary society, this type of social education theory has been attracting a lot of attention again. In this genealogy, we can find the trend emphasizing the logic of community promotion, rather than the logic of education. Although it was criticized, if we take this genealogy as the historical contradiction of the concepts of social education, we would be able to get some historical points of view, which can be used to reexamine the proper situation of social education in current Japan.
In this way, the concept of social education was historically established by possessing multiple meanings. Social education, which was popularized after World War II, was mainly positioned in the genealogy of self-education. However, after all, it was developed as an adult education based on hobbies and culture. After the war, the understanding of social education was extremely limited. By
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reviewing social education through a historical perspective in multiple angles, we can get some ideas of coping with the current occlusive situation of social education. Through these efforts, we can explore novel possibilities of social education in a contemporary society.
Community values in social education. Social education has traditionally expected the "power of society" to promote education in society. Social education lies deep within local society or community, and it has taken part in the process of creating autonomous practices by citizens to realize the "common good" and selfgovernance in communities.
Social education has common characteristics with social capital. The concept of both social education and social capital has been used to emphasize the social context of education. And furthermore, social education attaches great importance to the value of social networks, the criteria of generalized reciprocity and trust, and the bonds of community, which are the main components of social capital.
Yamana paid attention to "association" as a facilitator of social education in the book, while distinguishing national education from social education. He discusses the "principle of social education ", and states that "society educates itself" is the basic tenet of education.
It was sozialpadagogik of Germany, which was introduced to Japan in the 1900s, that gave pedagogical grounds to social education in Japan. It is necessary to pay attention to sozialpadagogik, because it links education to welfare, while emphasizing the "social aspect of education". Social education in Japan also historically contains welfare work, and we ought to return to this kind of value system today.
Kawamoto paid attention to the community from the perspective of social education in the 1920s, which was influenced by progressive education in the United States. After World War II, the issues surrounding the relationship between social education and community were discussed with the establishment of Kominkan.
The focus of the debate was on the relationship between the freedom of an individual and the solidarity of the community. Presently, the relationship between communities and social education is becoming an important issue in municipalities undergoing reform of administration and finance.
Various goods exist in communities, and they are reconciled and coexistent, but they also collide. Moreover, national values penetrate into communities. Kominkan play an important role in balancing various goods and realizing "common goods" in communities. "Common goods" are defined, corrected and decided through deliberation. They are realized through deliberation in Kominkan.
Therefore, it is necessary to prepare the various places for deliberation in Kominkan formally and informally. The staff of Kominkan takes part in this process of deliberation as facilitators, and the educational activities of residents create new community values. On the other hand, Kominkan have begun to play a part in welfare work. Social education can also realize new "common goods" of communities, including educational welfare work as well as German sozialpadagogik, social pedagogik in Nordic countries and so on. The values of social education are created by taking part in the realization of "common goods" in communities.
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