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УДК 81' 367. 625=111
Т. И. Раздина
доцент, кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры грамматики и истории английского языка факультета английского языка МГЛУ; e-mail: [email protected]
ВЫБОР ПРОСТЫХ И ПЕРФЕКТНЫХ ГЛАГОЛЬНЫХ ФОРМ В ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ ВРЕМЕНИ В АНГЛОЯЗЫЧНОМ ДИСКУРСЕ
В статье рассматривается вопрос о выборе Present / Past Simple и Present / Past Perfect в придаточных предложениях времени после союзов when, until, after, as soon as, once в англоязычном дискурсе. Показано, что простые формы употребляются в придаточных предложениях времени, если события представлены как «одно вслед за другим». Перфектные формы употребляются, если последовательность событий представлена как «прежде всего одно событие и только потом другое».
Ключевые слова: последовательность событий; зависимость одного события от другого; спонтанная реакция на случившееся или сказанное; события, предшествующие описываемым в данный момент в тексте.
T. I. Razdina
Ph.D., Associate Professor, Chair of Grammar and History of English, English Language Department, MSLU; e-mail: [email protected]
THE CHOICE OF SIMPLE AND PERFECT VERB FORMS IN CLAUSES OF TIME IN ENGLISH DISCOURSE
The article discusses the choice of Present / Past Simple and Present / Past Perfect in clauses of time after the conjunctions when, until, after, as soon as, once in English discourse. The article concludes that simple forms in clauses of time are used if the events in the clauses are presented as "first-one-event-and-then-the-other". Perfect forms are used if the events are presented as "first one event and- only - then-the-other".
Key words: succession of events; dependence of one event on the other; immediate response to what has happened or has been said; events prior to those described in the text at the moment.
The use of simple and perfect forms in time clauses has been dealt with in literature and to begin with, we give an account of the data available in English Grammars on the issue in question.
Present Simple or Present Perfect
To refer an event to the future instead of "will be + past participle" either Present Simple or Present Perfect can be used in time clauses after the conjunctions after, when, until, as soon as, once, etc. These two verb forms often replace one another, or there may be little difference in meaning between them:
I shall leave as soon as the meeting ends or (has ended) [6, p. 82].
The Owens will move to a new flat when their baby is born or (has been born)
[1, p. 25].
Present Perfect, as distinct from Present Simple, can be used to emphasize the idea of completion or to show cause-and-effect relationship between the main and time clauses:
You're not going home until you've finished that report [12, p. 603].
You'll feel a lot better after you've had a rest [6, p. 83].
Once you've seen Ani, you won't forget her [13, p. 199].
It always rains after I've washed my car [5, p. 328].
A: So shall I give you a ring when I've sorted the bill out?
B: Yeah [4, p. 185].
We aren't going to know the answer to that question until we've cloned a
human [4, p. 185].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, can be used to avoid ambiguity:
We can go out as soon as we've had dinner. ( "not *we can go out as soon as
we have dinner").
Only the choice of Present Perfect in this sentence "makes good sense" [6, p. 82]:
Come over and see us when our guests leave.
The sentence might suggest that the arrival of one set of visitors will coincide with the leaving of the other.
Come over and see us when our guests have left.
"The sentence clearly indicates that our guests will no longer be with us when our other visitors come" [6, p. 82].
Present Perfect can be used to shift emphasis from activity to when the activity will begin:
I'll take up gardening when I retire (emphasis is on activity <gardening>). I'll take up gardening when I have retired. (emphasis is on when the activity will begin) [8, p. 96].
Past Simple or Past Perfect
To express the idea that the two events happened one after the other either Past Simple or Past Perfect can be used after time conjunctions such as after, before, until, as soon as, etc with little difference in meaning:
The toaster went wrong before it toasted / had toasted.
We didn't want to stop until we finished / had finished the job.
After Miranda wrote / had written the letter, she went out to post it [5, p. 93].
After he (had) finished his exams he went to Paris for a month.
She didn't feel the same after her dog (had) died. As soon as I (had) put the
phone down it rang [12, p. 428].
Only Past Perfect, not Past Simple, can be used after the conjunction when to express the same idea that one event followed the other:
When I had opened the windows I sat down and had a cup of tea (*"not when I opened the windows") [12, p. 428].
When Miranda had written the letter, she went to post it (" *not when Miranda wrote the letter) [5, p. 93].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used when one event immediately follows the other, "when someone reacts quickly":
When the shot rang out, everyone threw themselves to the floor [6, p. 93].
When I opened the windows the cat jumped out ("more natural than when I had opened the windows") [12, p. 428].
When he opened his desk, he discovered a dead bird. ("stresses the immediate result, rather than when he had opened his desk...") [3, p. 621].
When he'd opened his third present, he looked at the roller skates and smiled.
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is chosen here because it is "not such an immediate or direct relationship; the roller skates may not have been in the third present" [3, p. 621]. Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used when time
conjunctions refer to definite points or periods of time in the past separated from the moment of speaking:
As soon as I got home, I phoned my sister. Once the initial shock was over, Mr. Coldman had to settle into his new role ("speaker is recounting a fainting attack") [3, pp. 621-623].
The choice between Past Simple and Past Perfect may depend on whether the information is considered background or foreground (backgrounding is a device used to make something less important; foregrounding refers to grammatical structures used to highlight some important information in a discourse) [3, p. 892, p. 904].
The fact that something happened before something else is not important:
She came through for a coffee after she'dfinished cooking. ("After she finished cooking would also have been correct, but with greater foregrounding of the subordinate clause than the version with the past perfect") [3, p. 624].
It ended up with her having to go back on the Saturday so that my son could come as soon as she'd gone ("as soon as she went would also be correct, but with a different, more immediate emphasis") [3, p. 624].
In summary, the tendencies in the use of simple or perfect forms in time clauses are considered to be the following:
• the choices between simple and perfect forms can be open with little difference in meaning between them;
• simple forms can be used when one event immediately follows the other;
• perfect forms can be used either to emphasize the completion of an event or stress cause-and-effect relationship rather than the sequence of events;
• the choice between a simple form or a perfect one may depend on whether the information is considered background or foreground;
• the inappropriate use of one verb form instead of the other may lead to misunderstanding or ambiguity.
As is seen from the account given above, although the use of simple and perfect forms in time clauses has been worked out in English Grammars available, it must be admitted, however, that example sentences, out of context, can hardly make one be fully aware of the differences in the
choice between simple and perfect forms in time clauses. Besides, the question remains still open as to whether a simple form and a perfect one can normally replace one another in time clauses with "little difference in meaning between them". The article aims to look at how the choice between simple and perfect forms in time clauses is actually made in connected authentic texts.
The following is the analysis of the choice between Present / Past Simple as distinct from Present / Past Perfect in time clauses after the conjunctions when, until, after, as soon as, once in conversation exchanges and narrative passages in fiction.
1. Twelve-year-old Ray Gold left the stage to rejoin his parents in the body of the hall. Even when he was seated the applause continued, so he too lowered his head to stare at the title of his prize-winning essay: 'The first changes I will make when I become Prime Minister' [2, p. 7].
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used in the title of the essay to present the sequence of events as " first-one-event-and-then-the other". The information focus is on the event in the main clause rather than on the event in the time clause.
2. "Mister Jem, don't you know better'n to take your little sister to that trial? Miss Alexandra'll absolutely have a stroke of paralysis when she finds out!" [7, p. 228-229].
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used to present the events in immediate succession. The speaker emphasizes Miss Alexandra's immediate response when she finds out that the children have been at the trial. The information focus is on the event in the main clause rather than on the event in the time clause.
3. Harry woke up on Sunday morning to find the dormitory blazing with winter sunlight and his arm reboned but very stiff. Seeing that he was awake, Madam Pomfrey came bustling over with a breakfast tray and then began bending and stretching his arm and fingers."All in order," she said, as he clumsily fed himself porridge left-handed. "When you've finished eating, you may leave" [9, p. 137].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the-other" Harry must eat his porridge first and only after that Madam Pomfrey will allow him to leave the dormitory.
4. Harry saw Malfoy stoop and snatch something. He realised that he'd got Riddles's diary.
"Give that back," said Harry quietly.
"When I've had a look, said Malfoy, waving the diary tauntingly at Harry [9, p. 178].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used in this conversation exchange to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the-other". Malfoy was not going to give the diary back. He wanted to have a look at it first.
5. The grass was still wet and looked almost black in the twilight. When they reached Hagrid's hut, they knocked, and a voice growled "Cmn" [10, p. 92].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used in the narrative passage to present the events in immediate succession(reached, knocked, growled).
6. Harry and Krum left the stadium together, but Krum did not set a course for the Durmstrang ship. Instead, he walked towards the Forest. "What're we going this way for?" said Harry. "Don't want to be overheard." said Krum shortly. When at last they had reached a quiet stretch of ground Krum stopped in the shade of the trees to face Harry... [11, p. 479]
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the narration to emphasize the completion of the event and its result. Harry and Krum had found at last a place where they could talk in private. The prepositional phrase at last helps to support the way the sequence of events are presented here.
7. Before leaving for the Commons Andrew checked over an amendment he wanted to move in committee that morning. When he had reworded his efforts several times he picked up his papers and headed off towards Westminster [2, p. 31].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only then-the-other". Andrew was going to produce an amendment to a document at Westminster and it was important for him to be a success. That is why he had to reword his speech several times before leaving. The noun phrase several times emphasizes the way the sequence of events is presented in the narration.
8. Moody took out a register and began to call out names... "Right then," he said, when the last person had declared themselves present. "I've had a letter from Professor Lupin about this class [11, p. 186].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one event-and-only-then-the-other". It was important for all the students to be present before Moody could read Professor Lupin's letter about the performance of each student in the class. The noun phrase "the last person present" emphasizes the idea expressed in the time clause.
9. "I want an opinion on your new chairman, Frank Boyles." "What?" "He won the vote tonight seven to six." "But..." Andrew fell silent. "I can't say anything, Stuart, not until I know all the facts" [2, p. 307].
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used to refer to the state of affairs at the moment of speaking. Andrew can't say anything about his new chairman, Frank Boyles, because he doesn't not know much about him yet. The sequence of events is presented as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the other": Andrew must know all the facts about Frank Boyles before he can say anything about him.
10. The night before he was to deliver his speech Raymond hardly slept. He continued to rehearse each crucial phrase and repeated the salient points that needed to be emphasized until he almost knew them by heart [2, p. 270].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used to refer to the state of affairs as the result of the previous activity. Raymond continued to rehearse each crucial phrase and repeated the salient points until he knew them by heart.
11. "It should take more than a few weeks," said Professor McGonagall. "You will have it back if we are sure it is jinx- free." "There's nothing wrong with it!" said Harry, his voice shaking slightly, "Honestly, Professor." "You can't know that, Potter," said Professor McGonagall, quite kindly, "not until you' ve flown it, at any rate, and I'm afraid that is out of the question until we are certain that it has not been tampered with. I shall keep you informed" [10, p. 172].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the-other". Professor McGonagall insists that it is necessary first to fly the broomstick to be sure it is jinx-free.
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used to refer to the state of affairs as the result of the previous activity: Professor McGonagall says that they must be certain the broomstick has not been tampered.
12. (Andrew and his five-year-old son, Robert were playing football in their garden). Robert dribbled away from his father until he reached the end of the garden, then turned to face him again [2, p. 242].
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used in the time clause because all the events in the narration are presented as happening one after another.
13. Harry and Ron set off for the castle once more. Slightly ashamed of his moment of panic, Harry didn't say anything to Ron - nor did he look left or right until they had reached the well lit Entrance Hall [10, p. 190].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the narration to refer to the events that were not possible until some other event had happened. Harry could not talk to Ron until they had reached the well lit Entrance Hall.
14. Maycomb was interested by the news of Tom's death for perhaps two days; two days was enough for the information to spread through the country. A few more details, enabling the listener to repeat his version in turn, then nothing to talk about until the Maycomb Tribune appeared the following Thursday. There was a brief obituary in the Coloured News, but there was also an editorial [7, p. 265].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used to refer to the normal, ordinary course of events. The people in Maycomb talked about Tom's death for two days, then they read about it in the Maycomb Tribune, and after that the incident was forgotten.
15. "How is Louise?" were Andrew's first words. The young doctor hesitated, then said, "Your wife's fine, but I'm afraid she's lost the baby." Andrew felt his whole body go limp. "Thank God she's all right," he said. "I'm afraid I can't let you see her until she has come out of sedation" [2, p. 72].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the-other". Louise must come out of sedation and only after that her husband will be able to see her.
16. (Raymond and Joyce are discussing a possibility of buying a new house). "Perhaps it's time we considered having our own home in the constituency." "After I've done the rounds why don't you stay up, contact a few local estate agents and see what's on the market?". "All right, if that's what you really want," said Joyce. "I'll start next week" [2, p. 121].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event -and-only-then-the other." It is important for Raymond to first finish the work with the constituents.
17. After his parents had finally left to catch the last flight back to Edinburgh Andrew returned to the chamber to hear Alison's father summing up the debate on behalf of the Government [2, p. 29].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the other". Andrew was able to return to the chamber only after his parents had finally left for Edinburgh. The words supporting the idea expressed here are: finally, the last flight.
18. After Raymond's advisers returned to Transport House that night he started to go over the hundreds of letters and telegrams of congratulations that had been flooding in throughout the day [2, p. 402].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used to refer to the time when Raymond started to go over his correspondence.
19. At eight o'clock on the following Saturday morning Simon sat in his office and heard the news that Broadsword had all engines on full speed and was expected to reach Portsmouth by three o'clock, exactly one week after his son had lost his college match eight-nil: they hadn't had a good second half. Simon had tried to console his downcast son but it didn't help that he had been the goalkeeper [2, p. 395].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used to refer to the events that happened prior to those described in the narrative passage at the moment.
20. It was a clear, starry night. They hurried towards the lighted windows of Hagrid's house. Seconds after they had knocked, Hagrid flung it open. They found themselves face to face, with him aiming a crossbow at them. Fang the boarhound barking loudly behind him. "What're you two doin' here?' "What's that for?" said Harry, pointing at the crossbow as they stepped inside. "Nothin ...nothin", Hagrid muttered. "I've been expectin..., doesn't matter... Sit down... I'll make tea" [9, p. 192].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the narration to suggest that the actions of "knocking on the door" and "opening it" did not happen in quick succession, as might have been normally expected. Hagrid didn't open the door immediately because he had been expecting someone he wanted to launch an attack on and it took him some time to be prepared.
21. (Raymond, a Government Under-Secretary, receives a personal letter from a girl he had a one-stand affair with, and who is now blackmailing him for more money. Raymond understands this could be a disaster for his career and is trying to work out what he is going to do). Raymond had become so used to receiving files marked "Strictly Private", "Top Secret", or even "For Your Eyes Only" in his position as a Government Under-Secretary that he didn't give a second thought to a letter marked "Confidential and
Personal.".He opened it while Joyce was boiling his eggs. Once he was in the back of his car Raymond read the letter again. It didn't take long. After he had arrived outside the Department of Employment Raymond remained in the back seat for several moments. "Are you feeling all right, sir?" his driver asked. "Fine, thank you," he replied, and jumped out of the car and ran all the way up to his office [2, p. 77-78].
The actions in this narrative passage are reported to be following one after another. However, Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the time clause to focus not so much on "after he had arrived outside the Department of Employment" but rather on Raymond's painful thoughts about what he was going to do to avoid the inevitable scandal.
22. Simon laughed, kissed his wife and left for the appointment with the Chief Whip at the House of Commons. As he started the car Elizabeth rushed out. "I forgot to tell you, Ronnie phoned while you were in the bath". "I'll call him as soon as I reach the House" [2, p. 245].
Present Simple, not Present Perfect, is used here to refer to the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-then-the other". Simon says he will call Ronnie as soon as he arrives at the House.
23. One man who attended the second of Fiona's soirees saw exactly what was going on. While many of the guests spent their time admiring the Seymour art collection Simon Kerslake kept a wary eye on his host and hostess. He was not convinced that Edward Heath would win the forthcoming election and felt confident that Reginald Maudling would turn out to be the party's natural choice. As soon as Simon Kerslake had left the Seymours he jumped into a taxi and returned immediately to the Commons [2, p. 38].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the narrative passage to draw the reader's attention to the fact that the action in the main clause took place immediately after the action in the time clause. Kerslake's mind was on other things than admiring the Seymour art collection. He had been waiting for the right moment to leave Fiona's soiree and be in time to meet Reginald Maudling in the Commons. Past Perfect is chosen to emphasize the idea that Simon Kerslake rushed off immediately as soon as he was able to in order not to miss the opportunity to meet R. Maudling.
24. Raymond hardly spoke in the Cabinet committee, but as most of his colleagues wanted to express their own views nobody noticed. As soon as the meeting was over Raymond hurried out and took a taxi to High Holborn [2, p. 79].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used in this narrative passage to refer to events going on one after another (was over, hurried out, took a taxi).
25. Snape looked furious. "My cat has been petrified! I want to see the punishment!". "We will be able to cure her, Argus," said Dumbledore patiently. "Madam Sprout managed to procure some Mandrakes. As soon as they have reached their full size, I will have a potion made which will revive Mrs. Norris" [9, p. 110].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the other". In order to prepare a potion to revive Snape's cat, it is necessary that the Mandrakes will have reached their full size.
26. Once a champion has been selected by the Goblet of Fire, he or she is obliged to see the Tournament through to the end. The placing of your name in the Goblet constitutes a binding, magical contract. There can be no change of heart once you have become champion [11, p. 226].
Present Perfect, not Present Simple, is used in the narrative passage to show the dependence of the event in the main clause on the event in the time clause. There will be no change of heart and no turning back once a champion has been selected and you have become champion.
27. Once the debate was over and the usual ten o'clock division had been declared by the tellers Andrew left the Chamber [2, p. 29].
Past Simple as well as Past Perfect are used to refer to the time when the event in the main clause happened. "Was over" refers to the state of affairs while "had been declared" expresses an action which had been completed by the tellers.
28. A few minutes later Fiona stepped out of the restaurant and followed in the man's footsteps. Charles crossed the road. He shadowed his wife, careful to keep a safe distance. When she reached the far end of the passage he watched Fiona enter the Stafford Hotel. Once she was through the swings doors Fiona stepped into an empty lift [2, p. 265].
Past Simple, not Past Perfect, is used in the narrative passage to refer to a quick succession of events (was through the swing doors, stepped into an empty lift).
29. At school he (Raymond) had shown little interest in girls as his mother kept reminding him that there would be occasion enough for that sort of thing once he had taken his degree [2, p. 21].
Past Perfect, not Past Simple, is used in the narrative passage to present the sequence of events as "first-one-event-and-only-then-the other". Raymond's mother's advice was that he should first take his degree.
In conclusion, the choice between simple and perfect forms in time clauses in conversation exchanges and narrative passages in fiction depends on whether the event is presented as "first-one-event-and-then-the other" or as "first-one-event-and-only then-the other".
More specifically, simple forms are used to present events in succession or as immediate response to what has happened or has been said. Simple forms are also used to refer to the state of affairs as the result of the previous activity, usually with state verbs such as to be, to know.
Perfect forms are used to refer to events prior to those described in the on-going narration. Perfect forms are often used to focus on the importance of the completion of the event in the time clause. Words and phrases such as finally, at last, several times, all the students, the last person, the rest of the class are used to emphasize the idea of completion.
Perfect forms are common in narration to change the ordinary sequence of events in order to focus the reader's attention on what was going to happen further, often as the result or consequence of the previous events.
Perfect forms can be used to suggest that the events did not happen in immediate succession as might have been expected in the context.
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