CC BY
20Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 6 (2013 6) 816-841
УДК 902.01
The Ancient Stages of the Culture Genesis of the Krasnoyarsk Northern Indigenous Peoples
Nikolai P. Makarov*
Siberian Federal University 79 Svobodny, Krasnoyarsk, 660041 Russia
Received 21.12.2012, received in revised form 06.02.2013, accepted 11.03.2013
The current article presents a review of the archaeological researches that have been carried out in the vast territory of the Northern territories around the Yenisei since the first academic expedition of D.G. Messerschmidt in 1720-1727 till our days. On the basis of a wide range of archaeological sources kept in museum funds, literature analysis and various unpublished documents it provides a reconstruction of the sophisticated genesis processes of the culture of the indigenous people living in the North of Krasnoyarsk Region in various periods of the Stone, Bronze, Iron ages and during the Middle Ages. The archaeological material used in the article is represented by the pictures and photographs of the most remarkable artifacts.
Keywords: archaeology, the Yenisei, the North, Krasnoyarsk Region.
The work was fulfilled within the framework of the research financed by the Krasnoyarsk Regional Foundation of Research and Technology Development Support and in accordance with the course schedule of Siberian Federal University as assigned by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.
Introduction
The current research presents a general picture of evolution of the material culture of the ancient Middle Siberian tribes for the period from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages on the basis of the general theoretical findings and archaeological collections that have been accumulated during the three hundred years' study of the region.
The work was carried out with the general scientific, historical and archaeological (e.g., typological, comparative historical, stratigraphical, chronological etc.) and natural scientific methods.
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved
* Corresponding author E-mail address: mnp@kkkm.ru
It were the researches by D.G. Messerschmidt, P.S. Pallas, G.F. Miller, I.G. Gmelin and other participants of the Academic expeditions in the XVIII-XIX centuries that provided the first scientific results in studying the ancient history of Siberia. It was no coincidence that the most informative publications of that period were the works by the expedition members issued in Sweden (Strallenberg, 1730), Germany (Gmelin, 1751-1752), and Russia (Pallas, 1773-1788). O.H. Appelgren-Kivalo, A.O. Heikel studied the vast Siberian lands looking for the ancestral home of their people (Salminen, 2003).
In the second half of the XIX century the garland in studying ancient Siberia was carried by the Finnish researchers. The expeditions of M.A. Castrén, J.R. Aspelin studied the vast Siberian lands in search of the ancestral home of their people (Salminen, 2003). However, the majority of the mentioned expeditions studied the South of Siberia Governorate. Only at the end of the XIX century the leading positions in archaeological studies of the region were taken by the local research institutions which also paid attention to the Northern areas surrounding the Yenisei. Among them there are, first of all, subdivisions of the Russian Geographical Society, museums and local educational institutions.
Back in the Soviet period one of the archaeological centres of Siberia began to form itself in Krasnoyarsk. Nowadays, some new archaeological centres making significant contribution into the research of ancient regional history are still developing in Krasnoyarsk. At the same time, the researchers pay more and more attention not only to the famous Minusinsk Hollow rich in archaeological objects, but also to the territories located farther to the North. The boom of archaeological findings happened in the years 2006-2012, in the North Angara Region, in the flood area of the Boguchany Dam. With the efforts of the archaeological expeditions from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science, Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University, Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies and other science centres, hundreds of thousands of artefacts were found, which formed the base for reconstructing the genesis of culture and ethnos of pre-Russian population at a new level (Korovushkin, 2010: 466-470).
Main clauses
History of Archaeological Research
The major part of Krasnoyarsk North and equated localities has been a blank space in the archaeological map of Middle Siberia. The first steps towards the studies of Siberian antiquities are connected with the name of Peter the Great. According to his order the first Academic Expedition to Siberia led by D.G. Messerschmidt was organized. However, from the archaeological point of view scientists were mostly attracted by the steppes of Minusinsk Hollow, where even an unqualified eye can see thousands of ancient burial mounds. It is no coincidence that the first archaeological excavations in Russia were done near Abakanskoe village, in the year 1722. At the same time the expedition of D.G. Messerschmidt found a sculpture of a stone fish on the bank of the Karaulnaya River near Krasnoyarsk, and in the year 1725 near Klimova village on the Angara some rock drawings depicting two horse riders were found and described. The "painted stone", as the locals call the rock, was numerously examined by G.F. Miller, I.G. Gmelin and other participants of the Great Northern Expedition in the years 1733-1743. The first archaeological material accumulated in various places of Siberia allows the researchers to outline three periods of history: the Stone, the Bronze and the Iron Ages.
One of the first ones to arrive at the conclusion that the history of Siberia had begun back in the Stone Age, followed with copper and bronze tools, was A.N. Radishchev. During his Siberian exile in the years 1791-1796 he found a lot of stone axes, knives, arrowheads and other archaeological objects in the ploughed areas around Ilimsk (Okladnikov, 1950: 22-24).
In the year 1874 geologist I.A. Lopatin discovered an ancient encampment near the mouth of the Chadobets River during his trip to the Angara. Since those times the encampment
was numerously visited by researchers of ancient history. One of the last ones to visit it was Doctor Vitsin from Yeniseisk, who collected a considerable collection of artefacts on the Chadobets River. However, the first one to research almost the whole Angara region looking for archaeological objects was N.I. Vitkovsky. With the support of Russian Geographical Society he did an archaeological trip from Irkutsk city to the Taseeva River in the year 1882. In the North Angara region he managed to discover such encampments as Mozgovaya, Kezhma, Pashino, and examine the cave drawings on the Kamennye Islands and near Klimina village. During the archaeological excavations of Chadobetskaya encampment the researcher found the first remains of burials discovered in the Low Angara Region. On the basis of the received materials Vitkovsky arrived at the conclusion that it is possible to outline the Neolithic, the Copper and the Iron Ages in the history of Chadobetskaya encampment (Vitkovsky, 1890).
The opening of the museums in Minusinsk, Krasnoyarsk and other cities of Yenisei province brought some order to the collection of archaeological objects. In the year 1892 archaeological research on the Angara was carried out by the curator of Krasnoyarsk Municipal Museum A.S. Elenev. After it, new collections from the North Angara Region were delivered by M.L. Sher, I.I. Berdnikov, A.P. Ermolaev, A.A. Savelyev (Vdovin, Guliaeva, Makarov and others, 2001: 120 p.).
In the years 1918-1919 N.K. Auerbakh, G.P. Sosnovsky and captive Austrian archaeologist G.K. Mergart began working for Krasnoyarsk Museum. The political events that took place during the Civil War forced N.K. Auerbakh and V.I. Gromov move to the North, where they carried out the excavations of the first Russian settlements in the mouth of the Promyslovaya
River. In their turn, the Austrian researcher and the Museum Director A.Ya. Tugarinov organized some works along the banks of the Yenisei River from Krasnoyarsk to Yeniseisk in August 1920, which discovered two encampments: one in the mouth of the Kan and another near Maklakovo village (Makarov, 1989: 142-156).
In the year 1921 the expedition of Krasnoyarsk Museum guided by its Director carried out a combined research near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River, where near the village which bears the same name A.Ya. Tugarinov found another ancient encampment. As a result, some arrowheads, jasper adzes, fragments of clay vessels and iron slags (Tugarinov, 1924: 4-5) were found. For several decades the mentioned encampment remained the most Northern archaeological object on the Yenisei exposed to excavations.
For various reasons the North Angara region was the only region of Krasnoyarsk North rich in archaeological findings. In the year 1924 geologists N.M. Kuhner and V.S. Milich brought an interesting collection of ceramic, stone, bronze and iron objects from the Angara River to Krasnoyarsk Museum (collection No. 148).
Due to some hydropower stations projects on the Angara River which were made in the beginning of the '30-s, the Angara Region became the site for a large scale archaeological research. A special role in it was played by the future academician A.P. Okladnikov, who managed to discover and study dozens of archaeological objects of all ages. The works of the '30-s and those published later by the members of the Angara (1951-1955) and Bratsk (1955-1959) expeditions became the base of some fundamental researches and the periodization of the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages of the mentioned regions (Okladnikov, 1950, 1955). The periodization is still used now, though it has been corrected to some extent by other researchers.
The systematic research in the North Angara Basin carried out in the past fifty years is mostly related to the construction of the Ust-Ilimsk and Boguchany Dams. Since the year 1967, the archaeological expedition of Angaro-Ilimsk from the Institute of History, Philosophy and Philology of the Siberian Department of the Academy of Science, Novosibirsk, has been working there.
Along with the academic Institute of History, Philosophy and Philology various expeditions from Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University and Irkutsk University made their contribution to the researches in the late '60-s -'80-s of the XX century. In the '80-s of the past century, some archaeological and ethnographical expedition crews from Krasnoyarsk State Museum of Regional Studies started their work in the territory of Kezhemsky and Boguchansky provinces (Makarov, 1989: 131-189).
The findings from Ust-Kova encampment were classified as belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic, which means that the region of the North Angara was populated around 30 thousand years ago. Moreover, the Mesolithic-Middle Stone Age was outlined especially for this region, which counts for 11-7 thousand years back; the periodization of the main stages of the Stone Age in the North Angara was made (Vasilyevsky, Burilov, Drozdov, 1988: 6-7). Some distinctive burials of Ust-Koda (Drozdov, 1974: 229-236), Sergushkin Island and other monuments of the early Bronze Age classify them as belonging to Glazkov culture that dates back to 2 thousand years B.C. (Privalikhin, 2009: 300-310).
One of the most significant achievements of the Lower Angara archaeology is finding the original Tsepan culture of the early Iron Age (Privalihkin, 1993; 2011: 161-183). Along with this, some archaeological sites of the well-developed Iron Age and Middle Ages were well described in two dissertation works (Gladilin, 1985; Leontyev, 1999).
A special period in the archaeological studies of the North Angara lasted from 2006 to 2012. During this period, around 30 crews of 800-1000 people worked every year in the flooding zone of the Boguchany Dam. It caused an avalanche-like boom of archaeological findings belonging to various epochs (Korovushkin, 2010, p. 466-470).
The situation in the Northern regions not involved in large hydropower station construction was quite different. Even planned expeditions do not go there often. In the year 1958 a combined expedition for archaeology and ethnography from the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Science, from the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, from Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk Museums was organized. In Turukhansk province, near Serkovo village on the Kureyka River, near Surgutikha and Podkamennaya Tunguska encampments, and a year later near Makovskoe village, R.V. Nikolaev found some ceramics and flintlock accessories belonging to the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron ages. Till the end of the eighties, this researcher returned to archaeological and ethnographic researches of that region from time to time (Nikolaev, 1963: 127-131; Nikolaev, 1980: 20-26).
The main Northern confluents of the Yenisei, the Podkamennaya Tunguska and the Nizhnyaya Tunguska, were studied in the sixties by the member of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Science, G.I. Andreev. In those unexplored areas of Evenkia he managed to find materials belonging to various epochs from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. Among the best collections, there are Neolithic tools from the encampments around Vanavara village, Chambinsky and Penolinsky Rifts, Baykit, Ust-Kamo and other places. Some stone axes, adzes, scrapers, arrowheads and shaftheads, cores, knives and daggers were found there (Andreev, Fomin, Pashkin, 1965: 100-115). The socketed axe
found in the area along with some other findings, according to the researcher, belongs to the early Iron Age (Andreev, 1971:46).
Since the year 1967 L.P. Khlobystin has been leading many years' archaeological and ethnographical studies of the Taymyr Peninsula and the Lower Yenisei. In the centre of the Taymyr, Mesolithic encampment Tagenar V and bronze workshop Abylaakh I were found together with the Neolithic encampments Maymeche I and IV. In the later expeditions to the Lower Yenisei, L.P. Khlobystin and his colleagues managed to discover over 200 archaeological objects of various periods, from the Mesolithic Age to the ethnographically contemporary times, along the Pyasina, Kheta, Khatanga and other rivers (Khlobystin, 1998: 8-12).
From the end of the seventies to the nineties of the XX century, Evenkia and Turukhansk province were in the centre of attention for the archaeological expeditions from Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical Institute and Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies. Some archaeological materials were collected in the Upper (Makarov, Privalikhin, Drozdov, 1978: 251) and the Middle Podkamennaya Tunguska (Privalikhin, Drozdov, Makulov, 2005: 66-86), and around the mouth of the river (Makarov, 1983, p. 211-212). This way over 100 archaeological monuments of various epochs, from the Neolithic to the Iron Age were found. Among them, there were Vodozima, Chemdalsk, Tetere, Champinsky Porog, Panova winter quarters, Chambe and others. Along with the multiple findings of typical stone tools there were some unusual ones discovered near the Khushmo River (Makulov, Leontyev, 2003: 5962).
The industrial development of Evenkia oil resources required some archaeological survey for the future pipeline tracks and drilling sites. During one of such surveys carried out in the Upper Podkamennaya Tunguska and its confluent
river, the Vodozim, in the year 2004 by the expedition from Krasnoyarsk State University (now, Siberian Federal University) under the leadership of P.V. Mandryka, a whole series of new sites was found. The huge collection of several thousand objects consisted mostly of stone tools, adzes and axes, scrapers and hogs, cores, arrowheads, slabs and flakes. Among the findings there was an iron knife and some fragments of ceramic vessels (Mandryka, 2010: 25-44).
P.V. Mandryka made a special contribution to the studies of Yeniseisk and Kazachinskoe provinces. Here, along the banks of the Yenisei River, in the eighties and nineties he found some artefacts belonging to all epochs from the Palaeolithic to the Middle Ages during the excavations.
In the mid-nineties, Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies focused on archaeological studies in the valley of the Lower Yenisei. Some stationary excavations were carried out at the encampments of Ilyinka, Nazimovo, Utiny Stolb, Monastyrskaya Protoka. The result of the excavations was a great collection of materials from various epochs, from the Mesolithic to the Iron Age (Batashev, Makarov, 1990).
At the same time the banks of the Lower Yenisei were studied by the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University crew for classification of archaeological objects (Makulov, Drozdov and others, 1997: 11-12).
In general, even though a great number of works has been carried out, we can claim that from the archaeological point of view the Northern areas of Krasnoyarsk Region remain poorly explored. If the number of archaeological findings from the area of Minusinsk Hollow counts up to 30000, even including the latest findings along the Angara, the North of the whole huge Krasnoyarsk region possesses up to several hundreds of ancient encampments and burial mounds.
Discussion
Stone Age
Considering all accumulated material and the hypotheses listed above, we can outline the basic lines of the history of the ancient cultures developed in the North of Krasnoyarsk Region.
The most sophisticated question is the one on the first population of the Northern territories. Today we can only speak of the population of the North Angara areas with the Palaeolithic people. Besides the widely known findings from Ust-Kova, Koda, Mozgovaya encampments of A.P. Okladnikov, G.I. Medvedev, N.I. Drozdov (Vasilyevsky, Burilov, Drozdov, 1988), there is some new material from the sites (Akimova, Stasiuk, Gorelchenkova and others, 2011: 354358). Some interesting sites were found at the newly discovered encampments of the Old Stone Age: Beryamba (Grevtsov, Meshcherin and others, 2011: 391-395), Kolpakov Ruchey (Rybin, Kuban and others, 2010: 575-581), Bolshaya Pelenda (Postnov, 2010: 565-568), Gora Kutarey (Vybornov, Vasilyeva and others, 2011: 377-380), Ruchey Smolokurny (Markovskiy, 2011; 436). Based on the data from the mentioned sites, we can outline the early and the late Palaeolithic ones. The early sites indicates that the North Angara Region was populated by ancient people around 3040 thousand years ago. The researchers of the Palaeolithic Age agree that with the beginning of the severe Sartan Ice Age over 20 thousand years ago the ancient population of the Angara lived in the open woodless areas of cold humid tundra steppe. During this period the main activity of the population was hunting mammoth, reindeer and other animals of the Ice Age. It is no coincidence that one of the most distinctive findings of Ust-Kova encampment is a mammoth statuette (Vasilyevsky, Drozdov, 1983: 59—65). Moreover, among the found
tools there were side and edge scrapers, hogs, chisel-like tools, cores for making slabs and flakes with sharp knife-like edges.
According to the materials found in Ust-Kova, in the second half of the Upper Palaeolithic Age stone industry was based on siliceous rocks. Among the tools there are scraper-like and knifelike tools of large slabs, incisors, piercers, sheet-shaped chippers. Besides the stone objects, some beads and other jewellery made of mammoth tusks were found together with small flakes and little slabs.
11-10 thousand years ago the territory around the Angara Region is a forest steppe with some small areas of bogged tundra.
For the farther Northern territories the question of the first ancient population remains open. The scrapers, hobs and processed stones of Palaeolithic look found near Bakhta and Sukhaya Tunguska, unfortunately, do not directly indicate to the fact of the population of the territory during the Palaeolithic Age. This far they are just some single objects not related to any cultural layer (Nikolaev, 1963, p. 127; Makulov, Drozdov and others, 1997: 11-12). Let us also remark that the great glacial sheet that reached the Podkamennaya Tunguska, and the severe climate prevented the migration of people to the North during the Palaeolithic Age.
The situation changed in the Middle Stone Age, the Mesolithic epoch, which was connected with the global warming that happened around 10 thousand years ago followed with the ice melt. The people reached the Taymyr, which is proved by the excavated encampment of Tanegar and other objects (Khlobystin, 1988: 32-54). According to the archaeological encampments Peshchera Eleneva and Kazachka, indicative for Krasnoyarsk and Kansk forest steppe, the Mesolithic Age of Central Siberia is counted back to 10,5-7 thousand years ago (Makarov, Orlova, 1992: 171-175).
From the Taymyr to the North Angara areas and further to the South, up to Kazachinsky Rift and Krasnoyarsk city, a series of typical Mesolithic tools is widely spread. The most typical of them are stone axes with a grasp. In the Lower Yenisei such tools were found in complex encampments of Utiny Stolb and Nazimovo, located in the North of Yeniseisk province. In the North Angara Region such axes were found in the encampments of Chadobets, Ust-Kova, Prospikhinskaya Shivera 2. In the tool arsenal of Mesolithic Angara Region, stone scrapes and hogs accompanied by some minor and major accessories dominate, together with knife-like slabs of regular shape, wedge-like, cone-like and prismatic cores, some polyhedral and transversal incisors (Vasilyevsky, Burilov, Drozdov, 1988: 96, 133).
The basic activity of the Mesolithic tribes living around the North Angara and the Lower Yenisei was hunting wild animals. The faunal remains, according to N.D. Ovodov, belong to reindeer, buffalo, red deer, bear. From the Mesolithic period fishing becomes more and more popular (Mandryka, Batashev, Vdovin, Yamskikh, 1998: 117-118).
The materials dated as Neolithic witness three cultural and historical provinces in the North of Krasnoyarsk Region: Taymyr, Evenki and Angara. The best studied of them is the North Angara area. According to the modern data, the beginning of the Neolithic period is remarkable for emergence of some clay vessels, which happened around 7 thousand years ago. The most ancient vessels were of egg-like shape with a round or a wedge-shaped bottom and the prints of some wickerwork on its external surface.
Among other methods of making vessels there are long-line method and gouging out from a whole piece of clay. The vessels were decorated with lines of small hollows, jagged
prints and small blade prints. An original kind of pattern was ceramic of so-called "Posolskaya" type.
This pattern was named after Posolskaya encampment on Lake Baikal. This kind of ceramics is characterized with wedge-shaped or round bottom and thin lines and rope prints on its external surface. The ornament is localized in the upper third of the vessel. Its edge is a little thickened from the exterior, decorated with triangle jagged prints and a line of little holes along a thin hollow made with a pattern making tool. Under the edge, there are horizontal lines of stamp prints going below; under them there are slant lines made with a modelling stick.
The collection archaeological material showed that this type of ceramics is widely spread on the Baikal, along the Angara and the Central Yenisei up to the lands of Krasnoyarsk. The base of Neolithic studies of Central Siberia which has considerably increased during the works of Boguchany Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Academy of Science in the years 2008-2001 includes new sites with ceramic vessels of Posolskaya type. Some more vessels of this type were found during stationary excavations in the encampments on Sosnovy Mys and Sergushkin islands, in Tolsty Mys 2, Tolsty Mys and Khedugin Ruchey, Otiko I, Gora Kutarey, Prospikhinskaya Shivera IV and in other sites (Makarov, 2012: 67-72).
Speaking of Posolskaya ceramics and network ceramics' dating, we should remark, that unlike those around the Baikal, the early Neolithic burials of the North Angara region remained practically unexplored. Only some single burials and settlements with some features of Kitoy culture are known. In the numerous encampments and settlements with Posolskaya ceramics, sometimes Kitoy-type fishing accessories are found together with some stone fishing baits, axes with ear-like grasps, shaft straighteners. The
authors of the published researches only provide some preliminary general dating of the Neolithic and the early Bronze Age ceramics. Therefore, the Neolithic findings of the North Angara remain
stratigraphically undifferentiated. For this reason the combined sites in the cross-border regions of Krasnoyarsk-Kansk forest steppe acquire special significance.
In the well-explored encampments Kazachka, Nyasha and Peshchera Eleneva in the basin of the Middle Yenisei the most ancient from the point of view of tradition was network ceramics along with that of Posolskaya type, which was later dated with the late Neolith. Radiocarbon dating for network and Posolskaya ceramics proves the presence of ceramic vessels in the sites and in the North Angara back in the Early Neolith, V millennium B.C.
During the Neolithic period stone processing techniques were also developed. The blades of axes and adzes were often polished. Arch and arrows were improved, too. To make the wooden arches springier they are complete with tusk details; it increased the destructive force of the arrow and the length of its flight.
During the Neolithic period the cults of animism, totemism and hunting magic become widely spread in the Central Siberia. The numerous drawings of animals and hunting
scenes found on the rocks around the Angara are the proof of it.
The fishing cults are witnessed by some original stone figures of fish found in the Eastern Siberia around V-III millennia B.C.
Such cult figures were to bring luck in fishing and increase the number of fish in the river. Similar figures were found on the Angara, in the encampments of Chadobets, Ust-Kova, Angarsky Lespromkhoz, Sergushkin Island; on the Yenisei they were found in Kazachinsky province, near Piskunova village, and on the Karaulnaya River near Krasnoyarsk, and in some other sites of archaeological excavations.
Hunting and fishing remain the basic activities of the population. It is no coincidence that Neolithic encampments are usually located in the mouths of major rivers' confluents, where a lot of fish is usually found.
During that period, ancient people went far beyond the Polar Circle, building encampments
Fig. 3. Neolithic stone figures of fish. North Angara Region. Exposition of Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies
around the Khatanga River and the other Northern territories of the Yenisei area
Speaking of the Northern territories of Krasnoyarsk region, it is hard to outline the Neolithic era, because the technology of producing stone tools in the North remained till the modern ethnographic times. For example, the stone arrowheads, scrapers, cores, knifelike slabs and flakes found in the encampments Ilyinka, Monastyrskaya Protoka, Utiny Stolb and in the other sites of the Lower Yenisei are distinctively dated with the cultural layers of the Iron Age. Moreover, the use of stone knives, adzes and scrapers by the Siberian peoples during the modern ethnographical times was noticed.
For example, so-called stone axes with earlike grasps which have been traditionally dated by archaeologists as belonging to the Age of Neolith, IV-III millennia BC, were used by some Evenkis living in the North of Yeniseisk province up to the
second half of the XIX century (Peoples of the North of Siberia in the Collections of OGOIiLM, 1986: 212). Outlining the Neolithic sites among the other findings is also complicated due to the mixture of materials from various epochs in the cultural layers of the excavated areas. For example, the material found in Podkamennaya Tunguska encampment which was excavated part by part, was dated by the researchers as Neolithic. At the same time, the drawing of a restored vessel with thin wavy patterns (Nikolaev, 1963), in our opinion, belongs to the Iron Age. It is proved by the location of such ceramics in Monastyrskaya Protoka encampment by the side of iron objects and slags.
Just like in the North Angara Region, in Evenkia and on the Taymyr Peninsula the most ancient kind of ceramics is Neolithic network ceramics. The beginnings of Taymyr ceramic traditions, according to L.P. Khlobystin (1998:
Fig. 4. Stone tools from Chambensky Porog encampment. 1 - 4, 7, 8 - adzes, 1981-1982; 5 - arrowhead, 1981; 6 - knife, 1977; 9 - small axe with ear-like grasps, 1982
61), can belong both to the South or to the East, which is connected with the two main ways leading to the North Taymyr areas, from Evenkia along the valleys of the Yenisei and the Kotuy, and from Yakutia, along the North-Siberian Lowland. In the developed and the late Neolithic period ceramics with rope prints from a beater coiled with rope are widely spread. Similar ceramics can be found in the Neolithic Belkachinskaya culture of Yakutia that dates
back to the III millennium B.C. In the Neolithic Age along with ceramics, some stone axes with ear-like grasps, various types of adzes, scrapers and arrowheads appear and spread all around the Extreme North.
In the encampments of Evenkia and the Taymyr the most often found cores are the pencil-shaped ones and those made for producing thin knife blades. According to the findings in the encampments Khatanga II, Ust-Kamo and others,
such blades were inserted in special tusk cases and served as knife blades.
In general, only some separate Neolithic monuments of Evenkia and the Taymyr Peninsula were exposed to stationary excavations, which means the lack of studies of the Neolithic Age in the history of the Extreme North (Makarov, 2010: 16-17).
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in the history of the Northern territories still remains unexplored. In the whole Lower Yenisei territory only one bronze knife with a Karasuk-looking curve found near Vereshchagino village can be classified as belonging to the Bronze Age (Nikolaev, 19890: 22).
With the same time one knife from the surroundings of Sukhaya Tunguska village is dated. However, R.V. Nikolaev who accepted this periodization also remarked the similarity of these objects to Tagar texturized knives (Nikolaev, 1960: 64). The latter dating seems more acceptable in the context of the Early Tagar bronze findings near Novopyatnitskoe village of Uyar province of Krasnoyarsk Region. The knives from this finding are extremely similar to the one from Sukhaya Tunguska in their size, shape and the zigzag ornaments of the hilt. Moreover, in the same finding there were several socketed axes of Krasnoyarsk-Angara type, similar to those from Podkamennaya Tunguska, Kureyka and the one made in the bronze workshop in the Taymyr polar region, in Abylaakh I encampment. Looking at the bronze socketed axe, the dating of the latter with the end of the Bronze Age (Khlobystin, 1998: 87-96) should be corrected; the workshop is more likely to belong to the early Iron Age. The ornament of triangles with vertical lines between them on the sides of the axe is more typical for socketed axes or Krasnoyarsk-Angara type of the VII-V centuries B.C. (Makarov, 2010: 196-198).
At the same time L.P. Khlobystin who studied the polar territories of the Taymyr Peninsula, suggests that Ust-Polovinka, Malaya Korennaya I-II, Abylaakh and other metallurgical centres witness the well-developed bronze production in the North of Krasnoyarsk Region back in the II-beginning of the I millennium B.C.
As for the most popular material found in the encampments, which is ceramics complete with some other accessories, there are two distinctive cultures in the North of Krasnoyarsk Region.
In taiga areas of the North Angara Region there is Glazkov culture of the early Bronze Age, and in the Extreme North there is Ymyiakhtakh culture.
For both of these cultures it is typical to combine some metal objects with the traditional stone tools. They still use stone axes, knives, scrapers, arrowheads and others. Metal objects are first used for decoration, and then some metal knives, axes, fishing hooks and other tools appear. The analysis of the findings showed that the first metal used for production was barrel copper. For example, in the encampments Malaya Korennaya I and Abylaakh of the polar territories of the Taymyr all metal objects were made of almost pure copper, with little impurity. Nuggets of native copper, with the weight of 1-5 kg were often found in various copper deposits, and on the Ondodomi River a copper nugget of 24 kg was found, with the content of copper counting up to 99%.
In their turn, the alloys of copper with other metals are used for making easily-melting bronze products. In some cases, for example, in Abylaakh I encampment, they used stannum, while in others, for example, in the settlements like Ust-Polovinka and Malaya Korennaya I, they used arsenic and stibium.
It is interesting that some samples of ancient bronze found in this territory are enriched with
nickel at the same rate as blister copper produced nowadays at Norilsk deposits.
In the settlement of Ust-Polovinka in one of the houses 12 vessels for casting metal were found. According to the calculations of L.P. Khlobystin, it was enough for melting up to 14 kg of bronze.
In the Bronze Age, the culture of the ancient North Angara settlements went through some significant modifications. Though the main territory of Glazkov tribe migrations are the territories surrounding the Baikal Lake, in the North Angara Region their burial mounds and settlements are also found. One of the distinctive features of Glazkov burials are stone ornaments of long oval shape made around the bones of the dead. The researchers suppose that the shape of the ornament symbolizes a contour of a boat on which the soul of the deceased floats away to the afterlife. It is no coincidence that the Glazkov people buried their tribesmen lying flat on the back, with the head looking towards the stream of the river. In the final stages of Glazkov culture crouched burials were practiced. In men burials the researchers found some arrowheads, knives, axes, harpoons, fishing hooks and other things used for hunting or fishing. In women burials there were some scrapers, needles and needle holders, other housekeeping utensils. In the burials of the Glazkov people there always was a lot of jewellery. There were pendants of animal teeth, flat mother-of-pearl beads made of river shells, copper earrings and rings, discs of marbled rocks and rings of white nephrite. Rings and discs put on the head and the chest of the deceased are interpreted by archaeologists as solar symbols.
Of special interest are anthropomorphic figures found in the burials. For example, in one of the burials in the mouth of the Koda River, behind the back of the dead woman there were two figures made of mammoth tusk (Drozdov, 1974: 229-236).
One more feature of Glazkov burials is that all the arrowheads, axes and other things look as though they had been intentionally broken before being buried. Such practice may be connected either with the fear of the deceased who could hurt the living people with the sharp tools, or with the process of "mortification" of the tools before sending them to the "world of the dead".
Great influence on the development processes of ancient Siberian cultures was made by the climatic factor. Around 4,5 thousand years ago the climate grew colder, which led to so-called "small" Ice Age. The forests stepped further to the South, and the tundra expanded its borders. Trying to get out of the crisis, a part of steppe dwellers migrated to the North, spreading the metallurgy and other achievement of the Southern tribes. On the Taymyr Peninsula, in Evenkia and Yakutia Ymyiakhtakh culture spread around, getting exposed to the influence of the Glazkov people and their neighbours. Round-bottomed vessels of the Glazkov and Ymyiakhtakh people were made by gouging; on the inner surface of the vessels there were some small square-shaped hollows that made it look like a waffle. Into the clay mix used for making vessels the Ymyiakhtakh people used to add not only sand and some other substances, but also animal fur, usually reindeer.
The climatic changes caused the expansion of tundra zone, and, therefore, the prolongation of regular migration of reindeer. The ancient hunters used to make ambush in their regular migration paths. Near such regular hunting sites they built their settlements like Abylaakh, Ust-Polovinka and the other Bronze Age settlements mentioned above. Besides hunting, the Ymyiakhtakh people continued doing fishing, which is indicated by the fishing accessories found in their settlements and their location along the riverside.
Fig. 5. Tusk things, nephrite ring and marble discs from the Glazkov burial at Sergushkin burial mound 3. North Angara. Excavated by V.I. Privalikhin in 1978, in 1984 exhibited in Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies
In general, the achievements of the Bronze Age tribes formed the base for the new stage of historical development, which is early Iron Age.
Early Iron Age
The most distinctive discoveries of the early Iron Age are a Scythian type bronze pot and a spear head, found 10 kilometres away from Vorogovo village. Besides the mentioned ones, there are some bronze goods from Ilyinka encampment, where a cambered tubber knife and a nail-like awl with a distinctive neck were found (Batashev, Makarov, 2000:12).
Several objects of early Iron Age, including a cambered tubber annulate knife and a three-
bladed spear plug tip of Kulay type, were found around the mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River (Makarov, 1983:211-212).
Of special interest are cast open-work semiabstract images of a moose. They were found in the mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River and in the upper river, near Sulomay village. The similar lattice-like images of moose and deer are found in Kulay culture of Ob region and in the burial mounds of the forest steppe Tagar culture. (Nikolaev, 1980:22, Fig. 1-4).
At the same time, the bronze knife and the awl from Ilyinka encampment have ceramics different from those typical for Kulay or Tagar vessels. The closest analogues of Ilyinka
ceramics we find in the North Angara region. First of all, they are fragments of original ceramics of so-called "Karabulsky" type. This kind of ceramics is distinguished with distinctive characteristics found on the dozens of vessels from Ust-Karabula encampment on the Lower Angara. The upper edge of the vessel collars are thickened with a wide moulded line, decorated with various combinations of jagged stamps, a belt of round hollows and finger tucks with bow-like prints made with nails. Often, jagged prints continue on the wider part to the vessel's body, but remaining in its upper third. Obviously, "Karabulsky" type of ceramics is typical for the unknown Tsepan culture spread in the North Angara in the VII - II centuries BC (Makarov, Bykova, 2011:227-231).
This kind of ceramics is well-known on the Lower Angara and the Middle Yenisei. We can suppose, that a part of Lower Yenisei territory and taiga area of the Middle Yenisei joins the cultures
of the Scythian ages, is related to Tsepan culture (Privalikhin, 1993; Mandryka, 2008: 68-76). We would like to remark, that considering the conservatism of Tagar culture in its forest steppe area, the chronological framework of Tsepan culture itself should be enhanced up to the first centuries A.D.
Opposed to the stock-raising tribes who lived further to the South, the peoples of the North kept on hunting and fishing way of life up to early Iron Age. The leading role of hunting is proved by findings of many arrowheads made of stone, tusk, and bronze. Very often the arrows could combine several functions There were some stone arrowheads, which could be installed into a stone mediator, connected to a wooden shaft at the opposite side.
Among other distinctive objects there were a bronze dagger with a handle of moose horn, some bronze awls and needles with pieces of sinew threads and leather belt, in which the needles had
Fig. 6. Bronze pot and spear of the Early Iron Age. Accidentally found 10 km away from Vorogovo village. The Lower Yenisei. Turukhansk province
Fig. 7. Bronze moose figure. Mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska. Early Iron Age. Accidentally found. Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies
been pierced and inserted into a needle holder, made of a hollow body bone.
Among the most impressive objects of that time there are a settlement and burial mound on Kazachinsky Rift of the Yenisei River, a cult place near the Idol of Taseevo, archaeological sites of North Angara Region in mouth of the Pashina River, Sergushkin Island, Otik Island, Sloptsy and Kaponir areas, and other locations. Of the greatest interest are several highly artistic bronze products, found on the Yenisei and the Angara rivers. Only in the surroundings of the Idol of Taseevo hundreds of expressive ornamentals were found: butterfly-shaped badges in the form of gryphon's head, jingle and bell-shaped pendants, barrel-shaped beads, elliptic badges with semiabstract image of a human eye, and a mirror with a camel image (Drozdov, Grevtsov, Zaika, 2011: 77-85).
The bone sculpture of a shaman woman found in one of Otik burial mounds, bronze boar figures, butterfly-shaped badges and other ornamentals from the Ust-Shilka burial mounds of Kazachinsky Rift, and many other stone, bone, and bronze arrowheads are of great interest as well.
In the very North of Yenisei region, Malokoreninsk and Pyasino cultures were developed.
One of the proofs of the Taymyr's turning from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age is the finding of a bimetal knife with a bronze handle and an iron edge in Ust-Polovinka settlement belonging Pyasino culture.
The found materials prove, that the territory of North Angara Region and the Lower Yenisei in the I millennium belonged to the related cultures of the Early Iron Age with its high developed bronze metallurgy and beginning of iron production.
The same metal-making situation characterizes Pyasino and Malokoreninsk cultures of the Taymyr. Along with the abovementioned bimetal knife, some bronze arrowheads, needles, piercers, and ornamentals were found in Ust-Polovinka settlement and other locations. In fact, stone tools are still in favour. Arrowheads, scrapers, knives, and other traditional stone tools are still used.
In that period the population of the Taymyr was living in slightly deepened half-dugouts, 5-6 metres long and 4-5 metres wide. The half-
3$ 40 41 42 #5 45 46 47 $8 49 50 51 52 54
0.........1JJcMt
Fig. 8. V.I. Privalikin's integrated table of Tsepan Culture inventory, the Early Iron Age of the North Angara. 1-ceramics; 2-6, 31, 33 - stone; 7-10, 14-30, 36, 37 - bronze; 11-13, 18, 30-35, 38-54 - horn and tusk
dugouts were heated by fire, located in the middle of a house. 4-5 people could live in one half-dugout, and the population of villages was around 20 people. A big number of found moulds, scratchers, and other objects helped archaeologist L. P. Khlobystin arrive at the conclusion, that the major part of the village life was concentrated in this sort of dug-outs.
The Iron Age and the Middle Ages
Around two millennia ago on the major part of the Yenisei Region, from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Minusinsk Hollow, the transition for the developed Iron Age began.
In the North Angara Region the traces of metal casting are proved by a large number of slags and remains of casting workshops. One of such melting-pots was found by the author of the article in Ust-Karabula encampment.
In the ancient times it was a construction which was dug into the ground up to the half of
its depth. The upper part of the construction was round, with the diameter of around 50 cm, made of clayed stones that became brown of annealing during metal melting.
The process of metal melting required dissembling the upper part of the melting pot to take the metal ball from inside the pot. For this reason near the pot we found some slags and fragments of the dissembled pot with the remains of melted metal. Having cleaned the pot we also found that in the fundament of the construction there were four flat stone slabs, dug into the ground vertically. After that the whole construction around the melting pot was laid with birch-tree bark, and the space between it and the stone slabs was filled with clay solution. The next layer after the birch-tree bark was clay 10-12 cm thick. The prints of the muzzle with the diameter of 3 cm are still distinctive on the iron ball and on the slags around it (Bykova, Makarov, 2009; p. 16-17).
Fig. 10. North Angara Region. Ust-Karabula encampment. Metal melting construction made in the Iron Age. Excavated by N.P. Makarov, 2008
A similar construction was found earlier during the excavations of melting station in Pashino encampment led by N.I. Drozdov, and in some other sites of the North Angara Region.
After melting, the metal was soft, fritted sponge-like mass. The mass was thickened by additional annealing. After that the iron mass cut in pieces was heated in an open pot, and a blacksmith made objects of required shape with a hammer and an anvil. Easily-melting bronze is only used for art. But the ancient blacksmiths were masters of their craft. For example, the blacksmith of Ust-Karabula encampment could make various ornamentals, pendants and one anthropomorphic figure.
Pottery was also developing. In the ceramic works new fragments ornamented with a thin wavy pin, nail-made hollows, lines of jagged prints and other patterns appeared. Similar ceramics, as those found in Krasnoyarsk forest
steppe, were dated with the I millennium A.D., or even the II millennium A.D. Moreover, ceramic works with thin moulded edges were found not only in the sites of the Lower Angara, but also over a thousand kilometres to the North, along the Yenisei banks. Pottery of this kind was found by the author during excavations of Chermyanka encampment in Yeniseisk province, Monastyrskaya and Podkamennaya Tunguska encampments in Turukhansk province, along with the other sites of the Krasnoyarsk North. Moreover, similar pottery was found in the Taymyr Peninsula, in the encampments of Boyarka I-II, Pyasina I-IX.
Due to geographical conditions, throughout the Iron Age the population of the Northern territories keeps on doing hunting and fishing.
Among the products they make, arrowheads of tusk, stone and iron still prevail. But among the remains of animals in the North Angara settlements sometimes some horse bones are
Fig. 11. Ust-Karabula encampment. North Angara Region. Iron Age. Stone and iron arrowheads, knives and a bronze dagger, an anthropomorphic figure and an iron pendant. Excavated by N.P. Makarov, 1982-1985, 2008. Exhibited at Krasnoyarsk Museum of Regional Studies
found, which proves tine influence of the Southern steppe cultures.
Unfortunately, the historiographical base of medieval histfry of Krasnoyarsk North tfat could push us to conclnsiooa of the origin of the modern indigenous peoples or Yenisei sis Region, stilt leaves much to be desired. From this poina
of view, some unique information is provided by Prospikhinskaya Peshchera IV burial, studied if the past years by P.V. Mandryka. Thousands of distinctive tools and hundreds of medieval burials were found. Researches df other medieval objects sfudier by the members of Boguchany Expedition, along with tide materials provided
by Lesosibirsk and Chermyansk settlements of Krasnoyarsk Region are of great interest as well. Even though these materials are just entering the world of historical research, it is obvious that they do not belong to the ancestors of the Evenkis, the descendants of whom Russians encountered on the Angara River in the XVII century. Cremation ceremony carried out away from the settlement, the evidence of which was found on the burial mound of Prospinkaya Shivera, is more typical for the Southern nomadic peoples (Mandryka, Senotrusova, Biryuleva, 2011: 432436; Biryuleva, 2012: 183-185).
Conclusion
This way, archaeological research of the Krasnoyarsk North is still at its initial stage, and it can lead only to some preliminary conclusions of the ancient culture genesis of the peoples living in the region.
According to the newest data, North Angara Region was populated with ancient people 4030 thousand years ago. No reliable data on the inhabitancy of the Palaeolithic people to the North from the Angara has been found.
Among the tools used by the people were: edge and end scrapers, hogs, sheet-like chippers, chisel-like tools, cores, slabs, cutters, piercers and others.
In the Mesolithic period, 10-7 thousand years ago, due to the global warming the whole territory of the Krasnoyarsk North up to the Taymyr Peninsula got populated. In the tool arsenal the people had stone axes with grasps, edge and end scrapers and hogs along with knifelike slabs of regular shapes, cone-like, wedge-like and prismatic cores, polyhedral and transversal cutters.
The materials belonging to the Neolithic age, 7-5 thousand years ago, witness the existence of three cultural and historical provinces in the North of the region: Taymyr, Evenki and Angara. The earliest pottery with a technical ornament of a woven net and ceramics of Posolskaya type emerge in the V millennium BC. In the developed Neolith pottery decorated with various kinds of jagged prints appear. Among stone objects there are axes with earlike grasps, various types of adzes, arrowheads, scrapers, cores, original sculpture works of fish. In the late Neolith, pottery is decorated with prints of a ribbed blade.
In the Bronze Age, North Angara region is populated by the bearers of Glazkov culture; for the Extreme North, Ymyiakhtakh culture of the II millennium B.C. is more typical.
In the early Iron Age, Tsepan, Nizhneporozhinskaya and Shilinskaya cultures of the I millennium B.C. are widely spread along the Lower Angara and the valley of the Yenisei around its mouth; however, the borderlines between them are still vague.
In the very North of Yenisei Region, Pyasino and Malokoreninskaya cultures are developing.
The Iron Age and the Middle Ages in the I - early II millennia A.D. are characterized with highly developed iron metallurgy, various kinds of metal knives, arrowheads and other objects, along with ceramic works decorated with moulded edges and ribbed blade prints.
The period of Late Middle Ages is still not well explores.
In general, many periods of the ancient history of Yenisei region have significant gaps, and still require gathering information.
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Древние этапы культурогенеза народов Красноярского Севера
Н.П. Макаров
Сибирский федеральный университет Россия 660041, Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 79
В данной статье представлен обзор археологических исследований на обширной территории Севера Приенисейского края, проведенных по времени от первой академической экспедиции 1720-1727 гг. Д.Г. Мессершмидта до современности. На основе широкого круга археологических источников, хранящихся в фондах различных музеев, литературных данных и неопубликованных архивных документов, дана реконструкция сложных процессов культурогенеза коренных народов Красноярского края в различные периоды каменного, бронзового, железного веков, а также эпохи Средневековья. Описанный в публикации археологический материал представлен в рисунках и фотоиллюстрациях наиболее выразительных артефактов.
Ключевые слова: археология, Енисей, Север, Красноярский край.
Работа выполнена в рамках исследований, финансируемых Красноярским краевым фондом поддержки научной и научно-технической деятельности, а также в рамках тематического плана СФУ по заданию Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации.
