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УДК 378.016:81'276.6
Э. Джендрих
Терминология в учебниках по языкам для специальных целей: квантитативный метод оценивания
Эффективность обучения среди прочего во многом зависит от качества учебного материала, его содержания и дидактической направленности. Преподаватели языков для специальных целей выбирают учебники и дополнительный материал, руководствуясь собственной интуицией и опытом. Квантитативные исследования языка сегодня являются современным методом, который предоставляет объективные данные для выбора необходимого дидактического материала. В статье приводится терминологический индекс аутентичных деловых текстов, проводится его сопоставление с индексом текстов популярных учебников по деловому английскому языку и указывается на необходимость дальнейших исследований, результаты которых могут послужить мощным источником информации для авторов учебников и для преподавателей - пользователей учебников.
Ключевые слова: курс обучения языку для специальных целей, параметрический анализ текста, учебные материалы
Elzbieta Jendrych
Terminology input in ESP course-books: quantitative evaluation method
The effectiveness of any teaching process depends, among other determinants, on the quality of input material and didactic relevance of teaching materials. ESP teachers try to select course-books and supplementary materials which can teach better than others. What criteria of selection do they use? Intuition and experience. Both may certainly be useful but they cannot give the hard evidence that quantitative language studies provide. Today, this hard evidence is needed more than ever before because the world of business is dominated by English and students' language competence translates into their employability and better career opportunities. The effectiveness of business English courses could be increased if coursebooks contained didactic texts with high exposure to core business terminology. The paper discusses the use of a parametric text analysis as a quantitative research tool measuring the teaching qualities of didactic texts. The aim of the paper is to (1) present the terminology index in authentic business texts, (2) compare it with the terminology indexes measured in several popular business English course-books, and (3) to stress the need of further studies into didactic relevance of teaching materials the results of which can be used as a powerful source of information for course-book writers and teachers. Additionally, the paper discusses the impact of high and low terminology index on lesson planning and task design.
Keywords: ESP courses, parametric text analysis, teaching materials
1. Introduction
Today business English teachers need materials that can help learners achieve good communicative competence in a shorter period of time. This holds true not only to business English courses but also to all English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses and, more generally, to all Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) courses. Adult learners look for courses which can help them learn the language faster and they are willing to choose the courses that are more effective [see 13, p. 7]. The effectiveness of business English courses depends on many factors, with teaching materials being the factor that can be significantly improved in a relatively short period of time [3, p. 18]. In order to produce more effective teaching materials we need a better insight into the language input they actually contain. To do that we need information on how the language used by course-book writers compares to the language used in real-life business communication.
Effectiveness of ESP courses can also be improved if language teachers teach their students how to achieve not only linguistic competence but also sociolinguistic competence and pragmatic competence. It translates into teaching social skills and social language appropriateness, teaching transferable business and management skills, as well as making students aware of cultural differences and ethical issues.
The aim of the paper is to present a research tool that can help increase didactic relevance of teaching materials. The paper discusses the significance and practical implications of parametric text analysis carried out specifically for teaching purposes. Finally, it deals with the methods of increasing students' communicative competence in business English courses.
2. Research tool that can help increase didactic relevance of teaching materials
There is a quantitative research tool that can be used to evaluate and possibly increase the didactic relevance of teaching materials: a parametric text analysis [10]. This tool is reliable since it produces unbiased quantitative data and the data can easily be incorporated into the teaching practice.
We need extensive research into authentic language use in order to identify all the core language elements that appear in real-life business communication of today. We need to research authentic texts which represent the language that specialists in business, management and economics use when communicating in professional situations.
Another important issue is how to assess course-books and supplementary materials in terms of their language content. How much new professional language input can students receive using a particular course-book? The parametric text analysis is an instrument that can help teachers assess the didactic value of course-books and supplementary teaching materials [10]. This instrument can discriminate texts on the
grounds of the specialized language input they contain. Both course-book writers and teachers are encouraged to make use of the parametric text analysis as it helps to decide how much professional language to introduce at a particular stage of a course and which European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) level a given coursebook or supplementary materials are suitable for [1, p. 17].
Despite the fact that many language course-books published recently do provide students and teachers with the information on the CEFR level they aim at, a more in-depth analysis of their specialized lexical input seems to suggest that the choice of characteristic elements of business English is not satisfactory (at the declared CEFR level). In most cases this selection is incidental or based on experience or intuition of course-book writers rather than on quantitative studies.
Today, business English course-book writers do not make use of the parametric text analysis. If the effectiveness of business English courses is to be maximized, coursebook authors and teachers need quantitative evidence on which language elements to prioritize [16; 6; 8]. Swan says that it is now becoming increasingly necessary to supplement and revise what we are teaching [15].
Therefore, it is necessary to carry out quantitative didactic text analysis on teaching texts in all ESP course-books. With the parametric text analysis, course-book writers can produce better quality teaching materials that will expose students to core business specific terms very early in the course. Teachers will be able to prioritize these elements in the teaching practice and students will be able to concentrate on things they will need most when communicating in real-life business situations.
The use of the parametric text analysis will allow course-book writers to measure the concentration of business specific language elements and to grade it according to students' language competence (CEFR level). It will also allow for controlling the number of newly introduced specialized language elements and monitoring their repetition rate. The use of this research tool in studies carried out for teaching purposes will be presented in greater detail in the next part of the paper.
3. Parametric analysis of didactic texts carried out for teaching purposes
When we talk about language for specific purposes, we feel that specialist terminology is one of the main factors that distinguish it from general language. It seems justified then to pay great attention to specialized terminology and specialized lexical items that a particular variety of ESP needs most frequently. Specialized terminology is perhaps the most important single factor that makes a quantum of difference between general language and language for specific purposes.
Since we analyze the frequency of core business terms with the aim to prioritize them in courses of business English, it seems to be a good idea to start with a definition of key terms. According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, key terms are «the special lexical items which occur in a particular discipline or subject
matter» [14, p. 545]. The definition of a technical word / technical term in Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics says that it is «1 a word whose occurrence is limited to a particular field of domain and which has a specialized meaning. <...> 2 a common word that has a specialized meaning in a particular field, such as significance in statistics» [14, p. 544]. Lukszyn and Zmarzer [11] give a definition of a term as an area-specific lexical item the meaning of which can be very clearly defined and which can be used in specialized texts in professional communication. When analyzing business texts, it is evident that this quality makes terms the core elements of the language for specific purposes which students should learn.
A corpus of texts contained in business English course-book was analyzed by means of a quantitative study - the parametric text analysis developed and advocated by Lukszyn [10]. The parametric text analysis allows for the measurement of the terminology index in a specialized text or a collection of texts. Thus, it gives the teacher precise and reliable quantitative information on the text in terms of its terminology input - the quality that is crucial when assessing the didactic value of texts in business English course-books. The parametric text analysis can also be used by language teachers who wish to take the decision on what supplementary materials to include in a particular course and at what stage.
The method of measuring the terminology index (the parametric analysis of specialized texts) was applied to examine business terminology input in five popular business English course-books (B2 CEFR level) published recently. The results of the study revealed that the texts in the course-books seemed to have low terminology indexes (0. 06-0. 12). In authentic business texts the terminology index is relatively high and amounts to 0. 25 [10]. It fluctuates slightly depending on the genre, the type of text, the subject matter, the intended audience / reader and the author, but it is, generally speaking, two to four times higher than that identified in the business English course-books.
It may suggest that students using these books will not be able to learn many business terms and that their lexical competence will not improve as much as it could if the terminology indexes were higher. Therefore, in order to enrich the terminology used in the recently published business English course-books, it seems advisable to find authentic supplementary texts with a high terminology index and include them into the course. It, however, makes the teachers' work more difficult and time-consuming.
McGrath is of the opinion that «many language learners have problems expressing themselves not because their grammar is weak but because they have a limited vocabulary» [12, p. 98]. This statement is particularly significant when designing teaching materials for ESP courses - if their terminological and lexical input is limited, learners' progress cannot be satisfactory, even if the course-books are otherwise very useful and attractive.
It seems that business English course-books with a higher terminology index could be more effective in teaching upper-intermediate and advanced students. Most likely
they will take away the additional burden of supplementation from business English teachers and will be perceived as much more effective by adult students. Higher concentration of business specific terminology will result in both greater exposure of students to new business terms and in more intensive 'recycling' of the newly acquired terms.
The study confirms that without quantitative methods it is difficult to assess which course-book can teach business terminology better than others. In a comparative study aimed at assessing the terminology index in another group of business course-books it was demonstrated that it is possible to write a course-book of business English with a higher terminology index. In two business English course-books (for B2 CERF level students) the index was found to be very close (0. 24) to that in authentic business texts (0. 25). It can be hoped that the effectiveness of the language learning / teaching process based on teaching materials with high terminology indexes will increase significantly. Yet, it needs to be examined and confirmed by comparative studies.
Below you can find short fragments of about 100 running words each taken from four different units of Business Topics [7, p. 9, 115, 244, 255]. These fragments show the differences between very low, low, medium and very high terminology indexes in texts targeted at B2 adult pre-experienced students (business specific terms are written in italics).
1. Very low terminology index: 0. 10
Why do people need international trade? Let's start with the following statement: no country can be self-sufficient, which means that it cannot produce all the goods its citizens need because it hasn't raw materials or goods produced in other countries are cheaper of better. Because of climate bananas grow in Africa but not in Canada. Brazil can produce coffee, Norway can't. This is called absolute advantage. The next question is why many people prefer German cars to Korean cars. Probably because German cars are considered to be more reliable and safer. The Germans have a longer tradition of car manufacturing.
2. Low terminology index: 0. 16
Once a trade contract has been signed, it is legally binding. A contract is a written confirmation that an order has been placed with the seller at the price quoted (together with the discounts that have been granted). If the terms and conditions of the contract are not met by one party to the contract, e. g. when the delivery dates have not been kept or when settlement has not been made in due time, we talk about a breach of contract - a violation of a valid contract. In such a situation, stipulated penalties can be used, or - in more difficult cases - legal action can be taken and the matter taken to court.
3. Medium terminology index: 0. 20
There are three basic types of a national economy: free economy, controlled economy and mixed economy. Ownership and allocation of resources are the key
determinants here. If resources are owned and allocated by individuals (whose decisions are based on the market forces of supply and demand), the economic system is classified as a market economy or free economy. At the other extreme, all resources are owned and controlled by the state. This type of economy is called a centrally planned economy, controlled economy or command economy. In a state controlled economy it is the government who owns the means of production.
4. Very high terminology index: 0. 65
A contract of employment usually includes a job title and a job description. It also includes information on the rate of pay, gross pay, tax deductions, net pay and frequency of payment. The contract should also include the date of commencing work, the length of notice of leaving, disciplinary rules, and optionally also grievance procedures, holiday entitlement, medical plan, pension scheme contributions, sickness benefits and trade union subscriptions. A remuneration package may contain the following: (1) basic pay -hourly rate, flat rate, piecework, pay-for-performance; (2) bonuses and incentives, (3) fringe benefits / perks, (4) benefit schemes.
The fragment with a very low terminology index (0. 10) can easily be used with less advanced students, e. g. A2 and B1, or it can be useful as a warm up text, or when the emphasis is not on terminology but on other learning goals. Its didactic value in terms of vocabulary teaching is not appropriate for more advanced students. The fragment with a medium terminology index of 0. 20 is more appropriate for B2, while the last fragment with a very high terminology index is more suitable for C1 students or for tasks aimed at vocabulary exposure or expansion at B2 level.
An excessively high terminology index (as the one in the last fragment) can be counter-productive and can result in students' dissatisfaction and lack of motivation due to extremely condensed new vocabulary input which may be discouraging for students. Business course-book writers and teachers need to be extremely cautious: lower competence level course-books generally require lower business terminology input whereas at the higher levels students will benefit more if the terminology index is higher. It can be tentatively claimed that at B2 and C1 CEFR levels the recommended terminology index in effective business English course-books should, on the average, fluctuate at the level of 0. 20-0. 25.
Practically, comparing the fragments above we can see that the terminology index varies in from one text to another or from one lesson to another depending on how the material is gradated and what particular teaching / learning goals the text is expected to focus on. However, the fragments presented above demonstrate how important the measurements of the terminology index can be in taking the decision on which materials to incorporate in a particular ESP course.
When we examine these four fragments more carefully, we can see that the second fragment, although not very rich in business terminology, contains a lot of business collocations, e. g. a breach of contract, grant a discount, legally binding, make the
settlement, stipulated penalties, valid contract and routine phrases, e. g. in due time, keep the delivery dates, meet the terms and conditions of the contract, party to the contract, place an order with, sign a trade contract, take legal actions, take the matter to court. Hence, its didactic relevance may be higher than its terminology index suggests because students can learn many useful collocations and routine formulae. Obviously, saturation of a text with business specific terms cannot be the only criterion of measuring the didactic properties of a text. Collocations, routine language formulae and other language elements are also extremely important in teaching business English.
Another important aspect which needs to be considered when using the terminology index as an instrument of measuring the intensity of business specific terms in a given text or course-book is the proportion of term types and tokens contained in it (type - token ratio). Fragment three above contains twenty business terms: ten tokens of 'economy' used independently and in eight different word combinations, three tokens of 'resources', two tokens of 'allocate resources' and only one token of 'market forces', means of production', 'demand' and 'supply'. The number of types in fragment three is much lower than the total number of business terms and amounts to seven only. This fact will certainly have its pedagogical repercussions in the teaching practice.
When evaluating the terminology index in supplementary teaching materials, teachers do not need much time. A simple but useful method is to mark all business terms and assess them in terms of quality, quantity and repetition rate. Measuring the terminology index in a course-book is time consuming but may prove to be valuable if we wish to make our courses more effective.
Another important consideration is how this new terminology is 'recycled' in the teaching process - students who are exposed to a particular business term (type) only once or twice are not likely to memorize the term and, what is more, to use it in an active way when speaking or writing. Repeated exposure to and controlled use of each business term (i. e. the number of tokens of each type) help students memorize the term; that is why it is important that a course-book can supply students with a high number of tokens since otherwise students will find it more difficult to memorize and use the term.
Students need examples of how the term functions in language, how it collocates, in which types of business discourse it can be used, etc. Here the role of ESP teachers is paramount. They are expected to help students not only memorize business terms but also teach them how to use the terms correctly.
4. Discussion
Today, effective language teaching and learning requires teaching materials that prioritize core business terms, business lexis items and other elements that are most typical of the language of business. These highest-frequency language elements should
be included in business English course-books and other supplementary materials prepared by teachers.
Without quantitative studies carried out for ESP teaching purposes, the language content of teaching materials is often incidental or even irrelevant from the didactic point of view. As a result students do not learn the things they will need most in business communication and they complain that courses are not effective and fail to meet their expectations.
Business English students and future business people «need English to do business, not just to talk about business» [4, p. 8]. For them, doing business in the increasingly global and fiercely competitive business environment of today is practically impossible without a good command of English. When teaching business English, we need to cater for the needs of both those who do / will do business (e. g. business people, entrepreneurs, managers, sales people, advertisers, investors) and those who talk / will talk about business, (e. g. pre-experienced business students, economists, market analysts or management consultants).
Effective use of business English is a difficult and complex goal for non-native speakers. It includes many elements: good linguistic competence, use of job-related terminology and phraseology, as well as social skills, interpersonal skills and communication skills, use of proper structures, style, tone and body language. Business and management skills are also essential in successful business dealings. It does not, however, suggest that the role of core professional vocabulary and phraseology is becoming less important. On the contrary, it seems that more and more students and teachers understand the crucial role of core professional terminology and phraseology in second language acquisition. This view is supported by many linguists who recognize and emphasize the crucial role of lexis and terminology in the development of linguistic competence [2; 5; 9].
Summing up, quantitative language studies can significantly improve the quality of teaching materials by providing course-book authors with solid evidence of what to teach. The parametric text analysis (the terminology index measurement) can be a useful instrument in material gradation and course-book selection. Teachers can also incorporate task-based learning and non-linguistic language components into their courses to make them more adjusted to the future needs of their learners. Since English is the lingua franca in today's globalized world, business people understand that they cannot do business without good communicative competence in English and they want teachers to maximize the effectiveness of language courses.
The suggested new teaching materials with a higher terminology index are expected to satisfy students' needs better and faster than traditional materials with a low terminology index. To prove that, however, new research comparing the effectiveness of the traditional materials with the new teaching materials is needed.
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