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323grammatical transformations is, to a great extent, approximate and conditional. In some cases a transformation can be interpreted as one or another type of elementary transformation.
References
1. Brinton E., Cruz E., Ortizy Ortiz, R. & White C. Translation Strategies. London: Macmillan, 1981.
2. Duff A. Translation, 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3. Barhudarov. Language and translation. Moscow, 1975.
4. Levitskaya T.R and Fiterman A.M. Textbook about translation from English into Russian. M., 1973.
5. Retsker Y.I. Theory of translation and translation practice. М., 1974.
SOME GRAMMATICAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION Tillayeva Sh.M.1, Kurbanova Sh.H.2
'Tillayeva Shahlo Maksudovna - senior teacher;
2Kurbanova Shirin Hikmatovna - senior teachers, FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT, BUKHARA ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE,
BUKHARA CITY, REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
Abstract: this article is about some grammatical problems of translation of English sentences into Russian and Uzbek languages. It also states about the principal types of grammatical correspondence among three languages.
Keywords: synthetic character, grammatical inflections, order of words, agglutinative, predicate, correspondence, affixation, lexical, syntactic means, grammatical inflections.
Every language has a specific system which differs from that of any other. This is all the more so with respect to English, Uzbek and Russian, whose grammatical systems are typologically and genetically heterogeneous. English and Russian belong to the Germanic and Slavonic groups respectively of the Indo-European family of languages; the Uzbek language pertains to the Turkic group of the Altaic family. Concerning the morphological type both English and Russian are inflected, though the former is notable for its analytical character and the latter for its synthetic character in the main. Uzbek is an agglutinative language.
As to grammar the principal means of expression in languages possessing an analytical character (English) is the order of words and use of function words (though all the four basic grammatical means — grammatical inflections, function words, word order and intonation pattern — are found in any language) . The other two means are of secondary importance. The grammatical inflections are the principal means used in such languages as Russian and Uzbek, though the rest of grammatical means are also used but they are of less frequency than the grammatical inflections [2].
The comparison of the following examples will help to illustrate the difference between the languages considered:
The hunter killed the wolf. ввчи бурини улдирди. Охотник убил волка.
In English the order of words is fixed. The model of simple declarative sentences in this language is as follows: Subject — Predicate
This means that the subject (S) is placed in the first position and the predicate (V) — in the second position. If the predicate is expressed by a transitive verb then in the third position we find the object (O), that isS—Vtr —О.
Any violation of this order of words brings about a change or distortion of the meaning.
The corresponding Russian sentence adheres to the pattern S — Vtr — O. But it permits the transposition of the words, i. e.Oxoi^K убил волка. Волка убил охотник and so on.
The Uzbek model S — О — Vtr differs from the English and Russian models by the order of words and morphological arrangement of the object which may be marked or unmarked [3]. Compare: ввчи бурини улдирди. Овчи бури улдирди.
These patterns are not equivalent. The first allows transposition of words, which leads to stylistic marking (characteristic of poetry). Besides, the ending «НИ» expresses an additional meaning of definiteness. The second pattern does not tolerate transposition of words.
The principal types of grammatical correspondences between two languages are as follows;
a) complete correspondence;
b) partial correspondence;
c) the absence of correspondence.
- Complete morphological correspondence is observed when in the languages considered there are identical grammatical categories with identical particular meanings.
In all the three languages there is a grammatical category of number both the general categorical and particular meanings are alike; Number: Singular and Plural
Such correspondence may be called complete.
- Partial morphological correspondence is observed when in the languages examined there are grammatical categories with identical categorial meanings but with some differences in their particular meanings.
In the languages considered there is a grammatical category of case in nouns. Though the categorial meaning is identical in all the three languages the particular meanings are different both from the point of view of their number and the meanings they express. English has two particular meanings while Uzbek and Russian have six. Though the 1 latter two languages have the same quantity of particular cases, their meanings do not coincide. The differences in the case system or in any other grammatical categories are usually expressed by other means in languages.
- Absence of morphological correspondence is observed when there are no corresponding grammatical categories in the languages examined. As for instance in Uzbek there is a grammatical category of possessiveness, which shows the affixation of things to one of the three grammatical persons, eg.: китоб-им китоб-ингкитоб-и
This grammatical category is neither found in English nor in Russian. These languages use pronouns for this purpose. Ex: my book-моя книга, your book-твоя книга,
his( her, its) book- его( ее )книга
In English we use certain grammatical means to express a definite and indefinite meanings, that is articles. But there are no equivalent grammatical means in Uzbek and Russian. They use lexical or syntactic means to express those meanings.
References
1. Nida E.A. & Taber C.R., 1982. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill.
2. Barhudarov. Language and translation. Moscow, 1975.
3. Buronov J.B. Comparative grammar of English and Russian languages. Tashkent, 1973.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY IN OLD
ENGLISH PERIOD Mamedova M.A.
Mamedova Madina Ashuraliyevna - teacher of English language, DEPARTMENT FOREIGN LANGUAGES, BUKHARA ENGINEERING-TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, BUKHARA, REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
Abstract: this article is devoted to the creation of English language during the Old English Period. The Relationship of English language of Old English Period with modern words. Influence of other dialects on English Language at Old English Period.
Keywords: old English Period, Early Modern English Period, Modern English Period, Anglo-Saxons, manuscripts, grammatical relationships.
We shall discuss in turn the Old, Middle, Early Modern, and Modern English periods, with special emphasis on their respective characteristics at the lexical level. We shall also highlight the major contributions of each period to the development of English lexis as a whole. The first Old English (OE) manuscripts were simply a few scattered inscriptions written around the fifth and sixth centuries in the runic alphabet brought in by the Anglo-Saxons. These scattered inscriptions give very little information on the language. The literary age began only after the arrival of the Christian missionaries from Rome in ad 597. The first OE manuscripts, dating from around 700, are glossaries of Latin words translated into Old English, and a few early inscriptions and poems. Unfortunately, very little material
