CC BY
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SOME DATA ON THE PECULIARITIES OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM FORMATION OF JOCHI'S
KHANATE
Bedelova G.
Associate professor of Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
Tynyshtykbay A.
2-ndyear MA student of Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
Abstract
The article reviews the fact that because of the close political, diplomatic and trade relationships which the Golden Horde had with many medieval countries, there are some data on it in Arabic, Persian, Kipchak, Chinese, Russian, Italian, Latin, and some other languages. In addition, the Khan's decrees and archaeological data, which are the documentary evidence of the authenticity of the historical record, are noted. The article also mentions the archaeological excavations conducted on the territory of the Golden Horde. As a result of these excavations many artifacts that testify to various aspects of trade and economic relations have been discovered. These artifacts include trading instruments, imported and exported goods. The material data found will help to determine the true nature of the narrative data.
Keywords: political, diplomatic and trade relationships, the Golden Horde
Because of the close political, diplomatic and trade relationships which the Golden Horde had with many medieval countries, there are some data reserved in Arabic, Persian, Kipchak, Chinese, Russian, Italian, Latin, and some other languages. Besides it is worth to mention that there are Khan's decrees and archaeological artifacts, which are the documentary evidence of the authenticity of the historical records. In fact, Khan's decrees acted as trade agreements. That is why, the information contained there is true. As a result of these excavations many artifacts that testify to various aspects of trade and economic relations have been discovered. . These artifacts include trading instruments, imported and exported goods (ceramics, glassware, expensive jewelery, silk). The material data found will help to determine the true nature of the narrative data.
Khan's decrees. Khan's decrees is a collection of documents of national importance in the Golden Horde. This set of documents includes information about trade agreements, discounts on foreign merchants, free access to trade routes, solutions for acertain economic disagreements. In Khan's decrees, only the decree issued by Tokhtamys Khan to the Polish King Yagailo on May 20, 1393 is reserved in original [1]. Other documents are reserved only in translation into other
languages. To date, there are dozens of Khan's decrees in Latin, Italian and Russian [2]. Among them there are a lot of decrees, including a decree issued by the Uzbek khan to the Venetian merchants in Azak (9 October 1332), a decree issued by Zhanibek Khan to Venetian merchants in Azak (September 30, 1342), Taidulla's missive and fees list to Venitian doge Giovanni Dolfin (March 4, 1359), a decree issued by Zhanibek Khan to Venetian merchants which is reserved in translated version (into Venetian dialect) (December 26, 1347), the Old Crimea's (Solkhat's) ruler Ramadan's letter to the Venetian doge Giovanni Gradenigo (March 4, 1356), a decree issued by Berdibek Khan to Venetian merchants (September 13, 1358), Temur Qutlugh's notice to Venetian merchants (September 20, 1358), the Old Crimea's ruler Cherkes-bek's borough charter to Genoan merchants in Kaffa (November 27, 1380) and Iliyas-bek's borough charter (February 24, 1381) [3], a decree issued by Mengu-Timur to the Grand Duke Ya-roslav Yaroslavovich in Russian (1270). Unfortunately, the original Kipchak versions of these documents were not reserved[4]. The abovementioned documents give valuable information on the Golden Horde's trade system. Khan's decrees given to the Venetian merchants are stored at the Venice State archives in the collection
of "the Golden Horde's documents of the XIV century". The Khan's decrees were given to another Italian trade republic - Genoan merchants, as well. However, the were not reserved to nowadays. Additionally, the documents showing the Golden Horde's trade relations with Venice and Genoa are stored in the Venice Senate fund (Senato, Misti), Venice State archives and Genoa archives. Moreover, professor of the Giessen University K.Kheller mentioned that there were decrees on the Golden Horde's trade relations with Poland and Lithuania [5]. Overall, Khan's decrees are widely known for researchers in historical science. Many scientists have studied them, and are still studying. There is information on these documents in Grigoriev A.P and Grigoriyeva V.P.'s translation and analysis in Russian [3] and in Vashari I.'s research articles [4; 48].
The "Codex Cumanicus" dictionary . It is an important documentary evidence on the international trade and economic relations of the Golden Horde. "Codex Cumanicus" - is a Latin word, meaning "book of the "Cumans" ", "collection about the Kipchaks". This dictionary consists of two parts. The first part of the book contains a Latin-Persian-Greek words written in three columns. This dictionary indicates that the Golden Horde had relations with Genoa, Venice and colonies in the North Black Sea region. The dictionary lists words and phrases as well as commercial and geographical names during the trading period. Therefore, "Codex Cumanicus" is specifically written for the merchants of the Italian trade republic in the Black Sea region, in order to help for create trade relations with the Golden Horde and Iran. During the strengthening of the Golden Horde, Kipchak has become a dominant and an international language in the main regions. At the time, merchants from Asia, travelers, ambassadors,people from European countries and others who travelled to and around Desht-i Qipchaq, communicated in Kipchak language. The genuine article of "Codex Cumanicus" is now stored in the library of the Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of Saint Mark in Venice, Italy. Julius Heinrich Klaproth was the first to translate the first part of this work, to be more precise, Latin-Per-sian-Cuman dictionary into French. Furthermore, he made a separate book from one of the Parisian publishers in 1828. Famous orientalist G.Kun translated the two complete chapters of the manuscript into a Latin language in 1880 and published it in Budapest. In 1884, this book was published in the German language in St. Petersburg.. It was V.Radlov who translated it into German. Danish scientist K.Gronbech published the original manuscripts as a separate book in 1936. [6].
It is worth mentioning the works of such authors as Ibn-Al-Asir, Rukn ad-Din Bejbarys, al-Ayni, al-Omari, Ibn Battuta, Ibn Khaldun. In al-Omari's book "Masalik al-absar fi mamalik al-amsar" (The ways of loking through the countries) there is information on Egypt's trade relations, historical and geographical data. Especially, the information given by Arabian traveller and merchant Ibn Batutta is worth mentioning. He tells about many of his journeys in his book "A inscription to spectators about the wonders of cities and travels" (Tukhfat an-Nuzar fi garaib al-amsar ua adjaib
al-asfar). There he wrote about the Golden Horde's political and economic life. He spent 25 years of his life travelling (1325-1349) and went over 150,000 miles. He visited Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, India, Bengal, Ceylon, China, Afghanistan and Central Africa. There is valuable data in the parts where he described his route from the Crimea to the Volga through the south Russian steppe. These lands were under the control of the Golden Horde at that time. The merchant traveled from Astrakhan to Constantinople, then returned to the Golden Horde, in the Khan's capital city - Saray, crossed the Volga, and travelled through Ustyurt, Khorezm, Bukhara and Afghanistan [7]. His work provides valuable information on international trade routes, the Golden Horde's economic history and trade centers.
Persian- Hu 'legin (Il-khanate's) data. The data that is worth mentioning in this case are such historic encyclopedic books of several Persian authors as "Jami' al-Tawarikh"(1300-1311) by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, which is based on the Jvayni's "Tarikh-I Jahan-gusha", information collected from the works of famous historians and scholars of the time, and "Tarikh e Gozideh" (1329-1330)by Hamdallah Qazvini. In his book "Tarikh-I Jahan-gusha" (The History of the World Conqueror) Jvayni described the trade and economic policy carried out by the Mongolian Khan's in the occupied territories [8]. The first chapter of "Jami' al-Tawarikh"(1300-1311) by Rashid-al-Din was called "Tarikhi Gazani" (Gazan's history). The history of Mongol Empire and its Khanates beginning from the formation till the 1304 was written there. In the first part of the book there is information on the trade field. In addition, the relations of the Golden Horde with Iran were described. However, the country of Il-Khanate had been at war with the Golden Horde for a long time. That is why many of Persian authors had viewed the Golden Horde as an antagonistic country and described many historic events, especially the relations of two Mongol Khanates, on the basis of the formal concept of the government policy and Khans' policy. Accordingly, the Il-Khanate's supreme position authors reported only the official versions of the events.
Western authors' data. In this case, the works of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck [10], Marco Polo [11], Ruy González de Clavijo [12], Giosafat Barbara [13] and Johann Schiltberger [14] are need to be noted. Most of the works by these authors are among the source fundamental facts about the Eastern countries for the Europeans. It also provides important information about the Golden Horde's economic history. The importance of this data is that the information contained therein is specifically written and personally checked by the authors themselves. Moreover, the authors have specifically mentioned what they have heard from other people. If to explain the existance of such accurate and truthful information, it is that that the basis of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck's journey to the Golden Horde was to collect information about the Mongolians, their military power, the economic situation of the empire, and the plan of the Mongol invasion. Their book was written as a specific report,
not as a historical or literary work, because after arrival Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck had to make a report to Pope Innocent IV and to the French king Louis IX respectively. That is why, despite some weaknesses, the works of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck are referred as actual data. In addition, the book "La Pratica della Mercatura» («The trade practice») (1338) by Florentine author Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, who was European contemporary of the Golden Horde's international trade relations, is distinguished by its uniqueness. As an expert in the international trade of the time, the author estimated Tana as an important trading center of Jochi's Khanate and emphasized its significance along the medieval trade route beginning in China. Pegolotti's work has accumulated about a hundred years of experience with the Italian merchants from Yuan in China; he gave helpful advice to merchants, which in turn helped him to make their trip easier. Thanks to his work, it was easy to identify the distances between Eurasian trading cities. If the merchants travel from Venice and Genoa to China with goods, they should first of all go to Ur-gench with textile goods. He says that merchants should sell them for silver there and then go to China. He also recommends a hiring a Cuman-speaking interpreter or worker of Turkic origin. [15]
The Byzantine authors' data. Such Byzantine authors as Georgius Pachymeres (1242-1308), who was the historian for the emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos and Nichifor Gregoras (1295-1359) dedicated several pages of their works to the Golden Horde's history, that was the northern neighbor of the empire. Georgius Pachymeres, an official historian of Michael VIII Palaiologos, described specific facts about the slave trade between the Golden Horde and Egypt. The other Byzantine historian Nichifor Gregoras, gave important information on the Palaiologos' relations with the Mongols and Egyptians. In his works, Nichifor Gregoras described people living in Desht-I Qipchak as lots of different nations living in the north, and emphasized the specific relations between the Golden Horde and Egypt [16]. Both authors mentioned the slave trade between the Golden Horde and Egypt in their works.
Archaeological and numismatic data. Due to the fact that the cities where the main political and economic centers of the Golden Horde were functioning were located on the territory of former Soviet republics, Soviet researchers have made great progress in archaeological research. Due to the beginning of large-scale archeological expeditions in the Volga in the 60s of the XX century, thematic research on the history of the Golden Horde has undergone significant changes. At that time the continuity of the nomadic and city culture, the historical geography of the Golden Horde, the peculiarity of the public structures, archaeological and numismatic materials were systematized. This tradition continues Nowadays this tradition has found its continuation among Russian, Kazakhstani and others archaeologists' research. Therefore, archeological artifacts and data are very diverse. It is worth mentioning the research of medieval specialists such as A.V. Tereshchenko [17], F.V. Ballod [18], G.A.
Fedorov-Davydov [19], K.M.Baypakov [20], L.N. Nedashkovsky [21]. Numismatic data on the history of the foreign trade relations of the Golden Horde is also distinguished by abundance of information according to the subject matter of the topic. The large-scale archaeological research that has been carried out so far shows that there was a great progress in the Golden Horde's numismatics. Despite the fact that dozens of new types of coins and the Golden Horde's dirhams, made in the Bulgarian mint at the time of the great Khan's Mongke and Ariq Boke, are not dated, they provide empirical evidence of the relations between Karakorum and Saray. Along with proof of the validity of the Golden Horde's international trade records, they can also provide additional facts. Numismatic studies of the Golden Horde period have also evolved in the historical science of Kazakhstan. As a result it was discovered that the the XI century cities Jent, Barshikent (Barshyn) were located in the trading zones in Volga adapted to the Golden Horde's cities. Two coins of the XIV century found in Jent proves the fact that the city had trade relations with Turkestan and was undergoing its highest prosperity period at the time [22].
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FEATURES OF THE ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION IN THE COUNTRIES OF
CENTRAL ASIA
Altayev A.
doctor of historical sciences, professor, Al-Farabi Kazah National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Utegenova I.
master student of history, Al-Farabi Kazah National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Abstract
The article comprises the range of the issues related to the ethnic composition of populations in countries of Central Asia in modern period. An analysis of large amount of statistical data shows the dynamics of changes in the number and proportion of the titular and largest ethnic groups of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan between 1989 and 2017.
Keywords: Central Asia, ethnic structure, multi-ethnic composition, ethnic homogeneity, title ethnos, repatriation
Central Asia is a vast and complex region, which is designated by the proposal of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, five former Soviet republics -Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In the ethnic sense, the first four countries are Turkic, and the latter refers to the Iranian group.
The population of the region has historically evolved as a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional. At the same time, due to a number of political and socio-
economic factors, Asian and European components were present in its composition, the ratio of which had different variations in a specific country profile. After gaining independence, the ethnic composition of the population of Central Asia underwent a radical transformation.
Today, the population potential of the CARs is growing rapidly, since its total number from 1991 to 2017 increased from 50,995,000 to 70,167,203 people.
Table 1
Population of Central Asian countries in 1991-2017. [1]__
1991 2017 Growth in thousand people Increase in %
Kazakhstan 16 793 000 18 074 100 1 281 100 7,1
Kyrgyzstan 4 422 000 5 529 000 1 107 000 20,01
Tajikistan 5 358 000 8 965 827 3 607 827 40,2
Turkmenistan 3 714 000 5 477 176 1 763 176 32,2
Uzbekistan 20 708 000 32 121 100 11 413 100 35,5
Total 50 995 000 70 167 203 19 172 203 27,3
For the period 1991-2017 years. the total population of Central Asia increased by 19,172,203. or 27.3%. The largest growth rates are in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan- 40.2 and 35.2%, respectively. At the same time, Uzbekistan with the highest population in 1991 has further consolidated its position, in 2017, the share in the region reached 45.8%, or almost half.
Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan showed an increase in population by 32.2 and 20.01%, their population increased by 1,763,176 and 1,107,000 people, respectively. The lowest growth rates were shown by Kazakhstan - only 7,1% or 1,281,100 people. It retained the
second place in terms of its population, today its share is 25.8%, which is almost half that of the leader, Uzbekistan.
The growth of the population in all the states of the CAR without exception was due to the increase in the title ethnic groups. Today, the most numerous ethnic group in the region is Uzbeks, in second place Kazakhs, on the third - Tajiks, followed by Kirghiz and Turk-mens. In the population of Central Asian countries there are more or less these five ethnic groups.
