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original Paper
Doi: 10.29025/2079-6021-2020-1-59-68
^gmt^e-Discursive Functions of the English Language Paremiological units
olga i. Natkho
Pyatigorsk State university, Pyatigorsk, Russian Federation ORcID ID: 0000-0002-9638-7507, e-mail: onatkho@mail.ru
Luiza R sardalova
chechen State university, Grozny, russian Federation ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6433-5983, e-mail: lsardalova@yandex.ru
Received: 17.02.2020 /Accepted: 28.02.2020 /Published online: 25.03.2020
Abstract: The article deals with the paremiological units of the English language and their cognitive-discursive functions. The paper presents arguments in favor of the study of paroemias in discourse that are due to the principle of functional self-organization of the language, as a result of which, a new synergistic meaning is formed and the importance of paroemias seems obvious for increasing the pragmacommunicative effectiveness of discourse. In the article, the authors state that the language synchronous state is inherent not only in the system, but also in dynamism, and the evolution in the language is not only dynamic, but also systemic in nature, therefore among these properties is the ability of paroemias not only to have a stable initial visual form, but also to carry out evolutionary transformations which initiate new variants of the structural-semantic character. The work also examines paremiological units as precedent texts acting as a recurrent fragment of any discourse. The work focuses on the following properties of paroemias: they represent precedent concepts; express emotional significance for speakers of a particular linguistic culture; are a unique system of associative relations caused by a precedent in the native speaker's consciousness; have a clear productive and perceptual marking in functional terms; are precedented cultural signs that indicate the semiotic nature of the subject, its active participation in the process of communication and its relationship with the national complex of cultural knowledge; present a truncated discourse behind a text or a situation; are units of linguistic consciousness actualized in discourse. The main goal of the article is to describe a number of cognitive-discursive functions of paremiological units: the function of the structurally-explicational organization of the discourse; the emotional-semantic emphasis function; the generalization function; the stylistic function; the regulatory function; the euphemization function; the phatic function; the meaning variability function.
Keywords: discourse, paroemia, precedent texts, functional and pragmatic characteristics, cognitive-discursive functions, sender, addressee.
For citation: Natkho O.I., Sardalova L.R. Cognitive-Discursive Functions of the English Language Paremiological Units. Current Issues in Philology and Pedagogical Linguistics. 2020; 1: 59-68. DOI: 10.29025/20796021-2020-1-59-68 (In Eng.).
Оригинальная статья УДК: 81'42:811.11
DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2020-1-59-68
Когнитивно-дискурсивные функции паремиологических единиц английского языка
О.И. Натхо
Пятигорский государственный университет, г. Пятигорск, российская Федерация ORcID ID: 0000-0002-9638-7507 e-mail: onatkho@mail.ru
Л.Р. Сардалова
чеченский государственный университет, г. грозный, чеченская республика, российская Федерация ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6433-5983 e-mail: lsardalova@yandex.ru
Получена: 17.02.2020 /Принята: 28.02.2020 /опубликована онлайн: 25.03.2020
Резюме: в статье рассматриваются паремиологические единицы английского языка и их когнитивно-дискурсивные функции. в работе представлены аргументы в пользу исследования паремий в дискурсе, которые обусловлены принципом функциональной самоорганизации языка, в результате которой происходит формирование нового синергийного смысла, при этом значимыми становятся паремии, повышающие прагмакоммуникативную эффективность дискурса. Авторы считают, что динамичный и системный характер присущ языковому синхронизму; изменения в языке и его развитие также обладают этими свойствами, значит можно делать вывод о том, что паремии, не смотря на их фиксированную форму, подвергаются изменениям, влекущим за собой новые смыслы. Авторы статьи рассматривают паремиологические единицы как прецедентные тексты, выступающие рекуррентным фрагментом любого дискурса. в работе уделяется внимание следующим свойствам паремий, функционирующих в дискурсе: они представляют собой прецедентные понятия; способствуют пониманию эмоциональной значимости носителями определенной языковой культуры; формируют уникальную систему ассоциативных отношений, созданную прецедентом в сознании носителей языка; имеют четкую функциональную и понятную в функциональном отношении маркированность; они являются беспрецедентными культурными признаками, которые указывают на семиотическую природу субъекта, активное его участие в процессе общения и его связь со всем национальным комплексом культурных знаний; являются усеченным дискурсом текста или ситуации; являют собой единицы языкового сознания, реализуемые в дискурсе. Главной целью статьи является описание ряда когнитивно-дискурсивных функций паремио-логических единиц, которые являются одновременно и концептуальными феноменами, и дискурсивными составляющими: функция структурно-пояснительной организации дискурса; акцентирующая функция; функция обобщения; стилистическая функция; нормативная функция; эвфемистическая функция; ассоциативная функция; функция изменения значения.
Ключевые слова: дискурс, паремия, прецедентные тексты, функционально-прагматические характеристики, когнитивно-дискурсивные функции, адресат, адресант.
Для цитирования: натхо о.и., сардалова л.р. когнитивно-дискурсивные функции паремиологических единиц английского языка// актуальные проблемы филологии и педагогической лингвистики. 2020; 1: 59-68. DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2020-1-59-68.
Introduction
The main structural units of the paremiological picture of the world are paroemias and, therefore, the operational characteristics of the system as a whole copy the functioning of its main components. Thus, we should concentrate on paremiological units and the dependence on function and on different types of discourse.
We must say that the study of units of the paremiological fund, regardless of their operational characteristics, is quite biased and often counterproductive, since it does not correspond to the basic principles of intricacy, systematics, and supplementarity.
The aim of the article
The aim of the article is, thus, to demonstrate convincingly the urgent need for the study of paroemias and their features in the functionally-oriented discourse, their examination as precedent texts acting as a recurrent fragment of any discourse. The article will also focus on the description of the cognitive discursive functions of paroemias.
A review of the literature
It is undoubtful that the mechanism for the formation of paremiological items is based on the functional self-organization of the language phenomenon, the ground for which is the principle that all linguistic units acquire pragmatic-semantic qualities that one cannot deduce by trivially adding the semantics of its elements. Self-organization of the language, thus, leads to a new symbiotic meaning, dissimilar to a simple combination of these elements meanings. This phenomenon was described by Lev Shcherba who claimed that these are the new meanings that appear in the language, and not the sum of the meanings resulting from their addition, and these rules, as the academician noted, are much more important than the rules of syntax [15, p. 24]. It is this principle that is one of the fundamental in the formation and functioning of paroemias.
Therefore, the significance of paremiological units seems the best in increasig the pragmatic-communicative efficiency of discourse. This emphasizes the idea that the examination of paroemias and the way they act in different types of discourse is one of the most significant and effective courses in their analysis, since it involves the transfer of the cognitive essence from the sender to the addressee in speech through texts [22], the impact function acquires a larger role than the message function [11].
According to the Theses of the Prague Linguistic Circle, proposed to the I International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1929, a language was defined as a functional system, namely, a system of the tools of verbalization that play a special role [12]. These scientific articles stress as well that the simultaneous state of a language is basic not only in a system, but also in dynamics, and that linguistic development is not exclusively dynamic, but systemic as well. Therefore, the analysis of the systemic (stable) and evolutionary (mobile) characteristics of languages is of constant importance. Among the features shown, is the capability of paroemias to succeed not only in having a fixed visual form, but also in making evolutionary changes, causing new structural and semantic possibilities.
Thus, we agree with O.N. Antonova that «paroemia fund in English is a dynamic subsystem which is potentially capable of evolving and, therefore, open; it exchanges information with its environment (this is a common system of language, individual and mass consciousness of communication participants, various parameters of communication situations)» [1, p. 11].
Yu. Karaulov indicated the intricate link between discourse and the precedence phenomenon. He put forward this element in linguistics and invented the term «precedent text» explaining that it is the text set in the native language of the linguistic community in the speaker's mental space (knowledge); it is a cultural reality important for the person who speaks a particular language and for the whole community of this language; it is regularly modernized in the discourse of a person of each language [3, p. 216].
Based on the above definition, we must not ignore the clear link between precedent texts and discourse and paremiological units either. This connection is confirmed by a number of scientific groundworks, that is to say: initially, case texts were considered only in the context of their interrelationship with fiction. Later, nonetheless, a more precise definition emerged as precedents in the national and world civilization are common for each native speaker, embedded in their thoughts and restated in everyday conversation [21]. From this point of view, we can trace the link and relationship between the phenomenon of precedent texts and paroemias because almost complete coincidence of their pragmatic attitudes and functioning features is observed. That is why, in our opinion, it is important to emphasize not just the discursive, but the cognitive-discursive component of the phenomena under consideration. As we can see in the definition given above, precedent texts demonstrate the ability to fix knowledge in the mind of an each individual person, and the entire people (or an ethnic community), and in their actualization too.
Many scientists [14; 13; 17; 18; 16] who studied polysemantic case texts with their sophisticated integrative character, spoke about the necessity of categorizing paroemias as "foreign words". Taking into account that paroemias fall into the sphere of phraseology, it is critical to mention the ideas of V. Kostomarov and N. Burvikova about case texts: they believe that they are not just words which are recreated in speech - their structure and form are constant and finished. It certainly brings the phenomenon under consideration closer to phraseological units (and, therefore, paroemias) in a broad sense [6, p. 37]. However, it is worth making a reservation here: despite the correlation of phraseological units with precedent statements, the phraseologization of precedent statements requires some specific studies.
Taking into account the definitions considered, we must say that the paremiological fund units are prec-edented incidents and that their competent analysis and understanding should be approached to within their functional space. Thus, precedents are units of language proficiency, they are deciphered only while using them, namely, when they correspond to the objectives of a speaking person and conversational circumstances.
Thus, we attach great importance to the fact that paroemias in total are case texts, they possess similar properties of fundamental and functional pragmatic character. For example, L. Moiseenko believes that precedent texts, in other words, elements and, in general, phenomena are repeating pieces in different kinds of discourse -fictional, scientific, advertising, popular science and so on - they are embedded in the mind of a speaker and act in accordance with his goals [7, p. 29]. So, we can say that precedent texts (and paroemias accordingly) possessed the following features:
- they represent precedent notions - mental and verbal elements in the mind which reflect, develop, estimate, assort the world around us and build the world image and its particular elements [9];
- the speakers of a specific language culture find them meaningful and important [2];
- a particular organization of close elements is represented by them and the latter are caused in the minds of native speakers;
- in their functional aspect, they have a clear productive (from the speaker) and perceptual (from the listener) markedness particularly evident against the background of close to neutral statements;
- are precedent cultural signs pointing to the semiotic nature of the signified, its effective engagement in the course of communication and the interaction with the system of national and cultural knowledge [10];
- they reflect compressed discourse with a text or a situation following it [5, p. 297];
- they are the elements of language awareness accomplished in discourse;
- in the process of eliciting precedent texts (phenomena) in the specialist sphere, the precedence is initial.
We must stress that the concept as one of the key conceptions of the cognitive-discursive paradigm is
viewed by us as a discrete mental unit which possesses a systemic and structural character; it belongs to the concept sphere which determines its essential characteristics, and the concept sphere, in its turn, is a dynamically developing set of concepts which are united by the multidirectional connections of the system.
In our opinion, it is important to emphasize that the need and productivity of the study and analysis of the conceptual space of paroemias is due to the fact that the entire cognitive potential of the paremiological fund is about building the abstract meaning of paroemias on the basis of usual, familiar and, as a result of this, understandable for the representatives of a certain linguistic culture concepts. Thus, paroemias can be considered as some mini-theories combining, summarizing and compactly coding many different situations [19, p. 103]. Accordingly, the polysemantics, multifunctionality, and intentionality initially inherent in paremiological units endow paremias with significant conceptual power [20].
Research methods
We have used the following methods in the work: definition analysis to examine in detail the meanings of paroemia elements; component analysis to study paroemia elements through the structured sets of their semantic properties; cognitive discursive and pragma-communicative analysis to examine the linguistic processing of the information necessary to convey knowledge within a certain field of communication.
results and discussion
While being cognitive discursive phenomena in nature, paroemias, as shown by the studies of national and foreign experts, function effectively in various types of discourse [8].
Let us dwell in more detail how paroemias operate in different types of discourse; the latter will contribute to a more accurate identification of the basic functional characteristics of the units of the paremiological fund.
In the first example, we shall analyse the application of the paroemia «a fool and his money are soon parted» in the discourse.
«"You do not want to walk around Las Vegas with a picture in your pocket of a man who went bankrupt". ... I looked at smiling Ben Franklin. ... I recalled that he said, "A fool and his money are soon parted'. I recalled that he discovered electricity - so Vegas could look like a phosphorescent candy cane».
[Smithsonian, 2010]
In this example, the indicated paroemia is presented in its full structural form and is not further followed by any explanation which demonstrates the use of the paroemia as a purely «circulating text» demonstrating the classic or original functioning of these units. Nevertheless, while maintaining the structural model of the paroemia, the author of the discursive work partially transforms its meaningful element via the application of circumstantial irony. Therefore, the usage of the paroemia in the ironic background backs the author to communicate his description of the persona and his perspective. It must be said here that the functioning of the paroemia within the contextual metaphor in this case occurs within the framework of the popular science discourse (Smithsonian magazine), pragmatic presuppositions of which allow and to some extent, even promote the use of such language units.
«Tom, the boat mechanic, started to explain how to put up the boat's tonneau cover. "Just forget about it, Tom," I said. "I'm not getting into this tonneau thing". "A fool and his money are some party,' as my pal Peter says. That's what I'll call my boat. "A Fool and His Money '».
[American Spectator, 1995]
The above passage is an example of the functioning of the paroemia in the belles-lettres discourse demonstrating the use of the paroemia in an ironic context and the apparent effectiveness of their interaction, which is natural given the understanding of irony as a complex of emotional-cognitive processes, and ironic discourse -as the result of the interrelationship of the emotional and mental propositions of the cognitive and verbal exercise of each speaker [23], and irony here represents his essential judgement of the real world.
Thus, the presence of a significant number of similar cognitive-discursive attitudes makes the use of pare-miological units in ironic discourse absolutely logical and justified.
In the above example, there is a change in the initial structure of the paroemia, moreover, there is not a simple truncation of any part of the statement, but the use of a pun based on the homonymy which makes the paroemia a central stylistic element in this belles-lettres ironic discourse. Such a transformation of the original paremiological form transforms completely its entire semantic component and pragmatic attitudes, in other words, the emotional-pragmatic polarity of the paremiological unit changes.
Both examples clearly show that despite the structural constancy and to some extent cliché of paremiological units they cannot be perceived as purely frozen semantic entities reflecting the people's thousands-old knowledge and preserving it in the long-term memory of the individual. Each communicative act is unique in nature, therefore, a paroemia, being used in any of them, builds its meaning in communication anew each time. This process is determined, first of all, by the dynamic nature of one or another discourse itself. In other words, paroemias are used in discursive works as markers of speech situations with different speech goals.
Let us look at the following example showing the use of the paroemia «a drowning man catches at a straw» in publicistic discourse.
«Warm blood dripped from the cut skin of his hands and congealed on the glass-strewn floor. ... His fist was clenched around his tie like a drowning man clutches at a straw.»
[India Currents, 2006]
The use of the verb «to clutch» intensifies the impact on the reader as it conveys the sense of despair when you seize something tightly compared to the verb «to catch» in the original form of the paroemia which is more general and means «to intercept and hold something». In this case, one of the initial options of the paroemia «a drowning man will clutch at a straw» (the application of the form «will clutch» has a more speculative character) is used in no way changing the original definition when you are in trouble, you search for whatever you can to help you, yet if it does not help you so much» [McGraw-Hill Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs, 2006]. However, the paroemia once again becomes an integral component of the stylistic construction of discourse here being the main components of a detailed comparison. This application confirms the fact that the proverbial categorization is based on the principle of analogous thinking which is at the same time the source of the whole complex of stylistic visual expressive means of the language.
«In his eagerness to get at the works themselves, Charlie had not read the introduction, the French text. ... His command of the language was solid. He raced through the two-page summary history and critique, grasped at a straw and converted it immediately into a floating raft. "This catalogue does not claim absolute completeness."»
[The Virginia Quarterly Review, 2001]
This extract is an example of the belles-lettres and publicistic discourse. As in the previous example, the use of the word «grasp» standing in the same synonymous row with the words «catch» and «clutch» although it gives a slightly different connotation (haste in the action), however, it does not affect the shift in cognitive structures which are in the conceptual basis of the paroemia discussed. In this very case, the truncation of the paroemia used by the author intentionally, is fully compensated by a series of additional elements which are based on the stylistic device of metonymy (a part ^ the integer = straw ^ raft). The application of this technique includes the mechanism of anticipation: the character's thoughts and actions become clear in advance. This example shows that paremiological units functioning in discourse signal the sender's intention. In other words, paroemia appears to be one of the mechanisms of a communicative act or instance of communication which has a strategic action and is provided by the rhetorical move, thus confirming the understanding of the paroemia as a communicative (author's) strategy one of the central concepts of which is the concept of inter-textuality [25, p. 571].
No less indicative are the features of the paroemia functioning «Jack of all trades and master of none» in various types of the discourse.
«The problem is, plenty of people don't have one number-one priority. ... "The conventional wisdom indisputable," writes Barbara Sher, whose excellent book What Do I Do When I Want To Do Everything? has made her chief consoler of self-pitying generalists. "If you're a jack-of-all-trades, you'll always be a master of none. You'll become a dilettante, a dabbler, a superficial person."»
[http://www.theguardian.com, 2007]
This example demonstrates that the paroemia, at large, keeps its basic structure in the media discourse, but the author splits it into the elements which provide a greater suggestibility. The paroemia acquires a referral function and it is substantiated by the mass media discourse which is a cognitive-pragmatic environment realizing its essence through the production and broadcasting of ideologems and evaluative meanings to a wide audience as well as through naming and metaphorical interpretations of the facts of social being [24]. In other words, the very essence of the discourse in question is the impact on public consciousness and the implementation of political and ideological actions which, by all means, gives reasons for all the language units pragmatic position comprising paroemias and they, in their turn, receive a distinct suggestive direction.
In the example given above, the author uses an inductive method of the material presentation ending with the main conclusion that he wants to convey to the addressee. Thus, the paroemia acquires a summary function. Using paroemias in this function is quite logical if we bear in mind the next reasons: on the one hand, the generalization process which determines the evolution and formation of paremiological units, in consonance with cognitive psychology, possesses the cognitive induction process, which, in its turn, jointly with other cognitive processes of intellectual depiction, classification, logical inference and correlation, establishes proverbial cognition (this is the process of the outside world classification and the gained knowledge demonstration in the text); on the other hand, paroemias possess the cognitive saving function, that is, they are economical elements in the text that make the understanding process more efficient because they are endowed with significant cognitive power. This point of view is confirmed by A.A. Konstantinova: according to her, paroemias are clear evidence of the functioning of the cognitive law of the least effort [4, p. 63].
One should note the obvious pejorative shade of the paroemia used which is confirmed by the author in the following statement through the use of units with a negative connotation («dilettante», «dabbler», «superficial person»).
«All you need are four: chef's knife, paring knife, boning knife, and fillet knife. ... The chef's knife is your Jack-of-all-trades. Use it to chop, mince, and slice vegetables, fruit, herbs, and meat».
[http://www.menshealth.com, 2011]
In this culinary discourse example, the invariant of the same paremiological unit has an already different semantic vector reflecting a positive connotation.
As for the following example, the meaning of the paremiological unit is fully expanded from pejorative to ameliorative.
«The Kansas City Royals, who understand how thin the margin can be, having come to winning the World Series, picked up Johnny Cueto, the ace pitcher they lacked, and Ben Zobrist, a jack-of-all trades who could plug holes at second base».
[http://www.nytimes.com, 2015]
All examples presented demonstrate vividly once again that the meaning of paremiological units is born directly in the discourse. Given this interdependence of the paremiological fund units and discourse we can distinguish the following cognitive-discursive function of the paroemia - the function of discourse organization which means that the discourse of some specific speech pattern can be arranged with paroemias, developed and described further in communication in terms of functioning.
As for such a wide scale of shades of meaning of one and the same paremiological unit, it is completely justified not only by the function of variability of meaning depending on all kinds of the author's strategies, but, first of all, by the very etymology of the paroemia viewed. It is believed that the etymology of this paroemia dates back to the quasi-Latin term «Johannes factotum» translated into English as «Johnny do-it-all» and popular during the Elizabethan era English language as an expression with a neutral, and sometimes negative, connotation. The name «Jack» («Johannes») should not be taken as a nominative, but as an appeal because in the Middle Ages, this word indicated an ordinary person from the people; a lad; notably low-bred or ill-mannered [Oxford English Dictionary, http://www.oed.com/]. This expression has been firmly rooted in the language since 1618, when it was used by Geoffray Minshull in his work «Essayes and characters of a prison and prisoners». The second part of the paroemia which predetermined its final negative connotation, appeared much later. Thus, the application of the paroemia in its full form, as a rule, indicates a negative connotation and the use of a truncated phrase is ambiguous, the connotation is assigned depending on the context and the pragmatic ideas of the sender.
Thus, the analysis carried out allows us to conclude that paremiological units perform a number of cognitive-discursive functions being both conceptual phenomena and discursive components.
Conclusion
So, summing up, we believe it necessary to highlight the following main cognitive-discursive functions of English paremiological units:
- the function of the structurally-explicational organization of the discourse (a paremia acts as a conceptual link structuring existing information and integrating the new one; therefore the paroemia develops a communicative discourse perspective building its frame; at the same time, the paroemia is postulated as a means of facilitating the perception, understanding, memorization, processing and refining of information, and also allowing to analyze information so that its perception and transmission is most effective);
- the emotional-semantic emphasis function (it is verbalization and transformation of the value dominant of the paroemia affecting the emotional emphasis in the discourse; at the same time, it is about highlighting the most relevant information in the discourse by the paroemia as a well-remembered signal for generating this information; the importance of this function is also approved of by the idea that the entire cognitive set of measures aimed at using the language by the individual is in the field of semantic memory which is in the center of an individual's intellectual functioning;
- the generalization function (the compression nature of the paroemia which helps to reduce the information load and highlight the most relevant information elements, allows to synthesize of information using a deductive or inductive method of structuring the discourse, bringing the entire amount of information into a single whole and building a coherent model of discourse; this function also contributes to the implementation of the principle of cognitive saving according to which, the paroemia as a cost-effective language sign encapsulating a large volume of apparently similar life situations and events, possesses great cognitive power and makes the process of processing and transmitting information more efficient);
- the stylistic function (the paroemia initially having a certain connotation charge, is often a part of the visual expressive tools used in the discourse, thereby, significantly transforming its contextual component);
- the regulatory function (carrying out a summarizing aspect of the generalization function, the paroemia determines a certain order of the logic of judgments of both the sender and the addressee having a direct impact on the formation of their cognitive base and some cognitive-informative attitudes);
- the euphemization function (the semantic ambiguity of the paroemia allows communicants to avoid the use of tactless, offensive and marginal language units that helps to avoid all kinds of communicative conflicts);
- the phatic function (the principle of establishing and maintaining contact between the sender and the addressee is based on the paroemia, it turns it into an effective communication orientation signal and a marker of their socio-cultural affiliation);
- the meaning variability function (depending on a number of extralinguistic factors the main one of which is the dependence of linguistic units on the author's strategies in the discourse, the paroemia can either partially transform its connotate, or completely modify its semantic polarity to the opposite one).
Thus, English paremiological units possess an impressive complex of cognitive-discursive functions, which largely determine the format and methods of communication of the sender and addressee.
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Olga I. Natkho, Candidate of Philology, Pyatigorsk State University, Professionally Oriented English Language Department, associate professor; 357532, 9 Kalinin Avenue, Pyatigorsk, Stavropol Krai, Russian Federation; e-mail: onatkho@mail.ru
Натхо Ольга Игоревна, канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры профессионально-ориентированного английского языка, Пятигорский государственный университет; 357532, г. Пятигорск, Ставропольский край, Российская Федерация, пр. Калинина, 9, e-mail: onatkho@mail.ru
Luiza R Sardalova, Candidate of Philology, Chechen State University, the Department of Foreign Languages, senior lecturer; 364024, 32 A. Sheripov Str., Grozny, the Chechen Republic, Russian Federation; e-mail: lsardalova@yandex.ru
Сардалова Луиза Рамзановна, канд. филол. наук, старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков, Чеченский государственный университет; 364024, ул. А. Шерипова, 32, г. Грозный, Чеченская Республика, Российская Федерация; e-mail: lsardalova@yandex.ru
