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0SOGDIAN MERCHANTS' INTERREGIONAL TRADE VENTURES: EXPLORING KHOTAN'S SIGNIFICANCE
Nargis T. Nurulla-Khoja
Silk Road International University Of Tourism and Cultural Heritage https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11220197
The study scrutinises the importance of the Sogdians, a cohort of industry-oriented traders who inhabited Central Asia from roughly the 6th century BC until the 13th century Chingizid era, eventually integrating into the cultural landscape of Great Central Asia. During this era, the Sogdians were prominent primary facilitators of international trade along the Silk Road. As a result, modern researchers commonly conflate the terms 'inland Silk Road' and 'Sogdian trade network'. Our inquiry extends to scrutinising Sogdian's engagements with the Western territories of China, with particular attention to the urban centre of Khotan. Through this investigation, we aim to underscore the profound significance of Sogdian participation in fostering and moulding cross-regional commercial interactions.
Roman, Arabic and Persian Sogdian, Chinese and PahlaviAre heard everywhere:1 Firdavsi (935-1020)
Keywords: Sogdians, Sogd, Khotn, Zandanigi
The Sogdians, often referred to as 'dancing' merchants due to their involvement in the vibrant trade routes of Central Asia, emerged as critical players in trans-regional commerce from the 6th century BC to the 13th century Chingizid era. This paper explores the Sogdians' multifaceted role in shaping trade networks, facilitating cultural exchanges, and contributing to the region's economic prosperity during this period. Through an examination of both historical records and archaeological evidence, we endeavour to illuminate the enduring influence of the Sogdians within the chronicles of Central Asian history, particularly emphasising their pivotal contribution to the formation and evolution of trade networks with various regions. This investigation extends to their interactions with the Western regions of China, notably the city of Khotan, underscoring the significance of their involvement in shaping cross-regional commercial exchanges.
The Sogdians, primarily Persian-speaking individuals, resided in the region called 'Sogd'. Their native language, Sogdian, belonged to the Eastern-Persian subgroup of the Persian languages, originating around the 6th to 3rd centuries BC. The geographical extent of Sogd varied over time; in the 7th to 8th centuries, a Chinese pilgrim defined Sogd as 'the entire region stretching from Lake Issyk Kul in eastern Kyrgyzstan to the Amu Darya'. 2 This region encompassed parts of present-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. Since ancient times, the Sogdian civilisation has been shaped by a rich heritage and a robust system encompassing commerce, religion, and culture, forming a vast and intricate network.
Muhammad Narshahi (899-959) vividly portrays the area's rapid urbanisation by the Sogdians in his book. He depicts the founding of cities as an 'aristocratic initiative,'3 reflecting the
1 [Chi ruml, chl toziyu chl porsi,/ CHi sugdi, chi chiniyu chl pa^lavi,/ Zi ^ar gunaye k-on khame bishnavi.]
2 Sogdian Traders: A History. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies. Etienne de la Vaissiere and James Ward. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. Available from: http://cnqzu.com/librarv/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/BriH. Handbook of Oriental Studies/Brill.%20 Handbook%20of%20Qriental%20 Studies/So gdian Traders A History Handbook of Oriental Studies Hand book of Oriental Studies .pdf
3 Narshahi, Muhamad. History of Bukhara (Muhamad Narshahi Istoriyq Buharu). Brief review of the Institute of Asian Peoples, No. 69. Study of manuscripts and xylographs of the Institute of Asian Peoples. Accessed October 16, 2023. Available from: http://www.vostlit. info/Texts/rus 12/Narsachi/otryv 1 .phtml?id=14181
nobility of the Sogdian elite. Most of these urban centres were established around Sogdian communities, known as 'nafs.'4 Being situated between nomadic territories and imperial domains granted the Sogdians a unique position conducive to fostering cultural and religious syncretism in their interactions with both nearby and distant neighbours along the diverse routes of the Silk Road. This geographical proximity facilitated a remarkable flexibility in Sogdian cultural expression, as noted by V. Barthold in his description of the village of Kushaniya along the Zeravshan River, west of Samarkand, Uzbekistan. A single building depicted various figures, including a Chinese emperor, Turkish khans, Indian Brahmans, Persian kings, and Roman emperors, illustrating Sogdian society's multifaceted cultural exchanges.5
The history of Sogdians is tightly connected to the intensive circulations of various Persian-speaking tribes, including the Scythians, Saks, Massagets, Sarmatians, and Tours. In the 10th century BCE, this variety of tribes inhabited the vast expanses of the Great Eurasian Steppe, stretching from the Danube River in the west to the upper reaches of the Yellow River in the east. These tribes were closely associated with major ancient trading routes later consolidated into the partially mythologised Silk Road. The Behistun stone cuneiform inscription in Nakshi Rustam of Akhemenids, the first mighty Persian Empire (550-330 BC), is the earliest official reference to the Sogdian group and their territorial coalition known as 'Sogd'. The inscription presents a catalogue of various Saks tribes, encompassing groups such as the Saks beyond the Sogd or Saks paradraya (Saks beyond the river) and Saks-Tigraxauda (alternatively known as Saka tigraxauda), signifying Saks adorned with a pointed hat, among others. Notably, the depiction includes imagery of a tribal leader from the Saks-Tigraxauda group, identified as Skunk, adorned with a distinctive headpiece. In subsequent periods, this particular headwear symbolised the Silk Road, embodying the attire worn by caravans journeying along its extensive routes.6 Another notable historical instance featuring this distinctive headwear occurred during an excavation at the prestigious archaeological site of Issyk Kurgan. Spearheaded by the esteemed Kazakhstani archaeologist K.A. Akishev, a team of researchers uncovered the "Golden Saka Warrior," adorned with the pointed cap emblematic of the Saks-Tigraxauda tribe. This significant discovery occurred in 1969-70, approximately 53 kilometres from Almaty, Kazakhstan.7
The pointed hat emerged later during the Tang period (618-907) when this dynasty established a dedicated oversight agency to regulate caravan traders, primarily focusing on Sogdians or individuals sporting such headgear. This agency was known as the Sarthavak Office, derived from Sanskrit, meaning the department of 'caravan drivers.'8 Such a specialised unit underscores the profound importance of international trade during the Tang Empire. V. Bartold notably suggested that the term Sarthavak denotes "caravan driver," with the term 'sart' likely encompassing the broader urban population of Central Asia. This designation persisted until the region's partition into five separate republics.'9
The itinerant merchants, colloquially referred to as "caravan drivers," recognisable by their distinctive pointed headgear, frequently traversed the Tarim Basin region of western China,
4 p.216 Yiakubov, Yu. "The Early Medieval Rural Settlements of Mountainous Sogd (To the Problem of Feudalism Formation)" (Rannesrednevekovye sel-skie poseleniq gordnogo Sogda (K problem stanovleniya feodalizma)). Dushanbe: Donish, 1988.
5 p.302 Bartold, V. Four Studies on the History of Central Asia. Vol. I. Translated by V. & T. Minorsky. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1956.
6 "From Court to Caravan: Chinese Tomb Sculptures from the Collection of Anthony M. Solomon." Accessed June 15, 2023. Available from: http://sites.asiasociety.org/arts/courtcaravan/
7 "History of Kazakhstan, Golden Man (Zolotoj chelovek)." Accessed July 10, 2023. Available from: https://tarikh.kz/saki-usuni-kanglv-hunnu/saki/zolotov-chelovek/
8 p. 37 Schafer, Edward H. H. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics. University of California Press, 1985. "
9 p.247 Bartold, V. Turkestan During the Mongol Invasion. Vol. 1. Moscow: Nauka, 1963.
notably within the urban centre known as Khotan. Despite its significance, questions persist regarding the extent of the Sogdians' influence in Khotan, adding complexity to our understanding of the city's role in shaping the dynamics of the Silk Road. Many ancient Khotanese individuals spoke an Eastern Persian language closely related to Sogdian. Among Persian-speaking people, the name 'Khotan' was renowned until recent times for its musk. The esteemed Persian poet Saadi Shirazi (1203-1291) once mused: 'Is it a breeze from Shiraz's soil or musk of Khotan? Or is it my beloved who has dishevelled her amber curls?'10 This poetic reference highlights the fame and allure associated with the musk of Khotan in Persian culture.
Khotan held significant strategic importance during the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 BC). General Zhang Qian, widely acclaimed for his pivotal role in establishing this renowned trade network, embarked on a seminal expedition to the Western lands, or Central Asia, during this period. His journey, which passed through Khotan. Zhang Qian's mission, commissioned by the ambitious and dynamic Emperor Wudi, aimed to establish diplomatic partnerships and forge military alliances against nomadic tribes. This strategic initiative reflects Emperor Wudi's adherence to traditional Chinese diplomatic methodologies, which sought to counter nomadic threats by forming partnerships with other nomadic groups, exemplifying the principle of "overcoming barbarians using other barbarians."11.
Emperor Wudi's engagement with the Sogdians was mutually beneficial, resulting in a significant exchange between the two powers. Through this interaction, the Han dynasty secured a symbol of imperial power known as the "Divine horses" from Ferghana, while the Sogdians obtained the highly coveted commodity of silk. This initiated a border trade dynamic characterised by the exchange of silk for horses, which persisted as the predominant trade between the two opposing powers even during periods of conflict. For centuries, Chinese silk remained a focal point of interest within the extensive transnational trading network, particularly among traders such as the Sogdians. The allure of Chinese silk as a desirable and valuable commodity ensured its enduring prominence in trade relations spanning vast geographical regions.
Another narrative linked to Khotan pertains to silk production. Legend has it that the Khotanese populace acquired silk manufacturing methods by marrying a Chinese princess to the prince of Khotan, implying a notable instance of cultural interchange. 12 Following this transmission of silk production techniques from the Khotanese, the Sogdians undertook their experiments in silk production. By the 8th to 9th centuries, Sogdian silk had gained widespread popularity, with particular acclaim directed towards varieties such as the Sogdian red-white-and-green silk brocade known as Zandanigi (or Zandanichi).
This distinctive silk brocade exemplified the craftsmanship and ingenuity of the Sogdians, solidifying their reputation as preeminent silk producers within the global marketplace. Named after its production site, Zandana, which is located near Bukhara (Ruhtar, 2009), this luxurious textile further underscored the Sogdians' mastery of silk production and their significant contribution to the thriving trade networks of the time.13 Even Kublai Khan (1215-1294), the founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), recognised the exceptional quality of Zandanigi silk. To ensure its production, he commanded Bukharian weavers to be brought to his newly established
10 [In nasimi khoki Sheroz i ki mushki Khotan?/ Ye nigori man pareson karda zulfi anbarin?]
11 p. 29 Mamadazimov, Sh. Abdugani. The Great Silk Road: The History of Formation, Prosperity, and Collapse. Dushanbe, 2014.
12 p. 85. Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya, m. "The Leningrad Collection of the Sakish Business Documents and the Problem of the Investigation of Central Asian Texts." In Cadonna, A. (ed.), Turfan and Dunhuang: The Texts. Encounter of Civilizations on the Silk Route, Orientalia Venetiana, IV. Florence: Olschki, 1992, pp. 85-95.
13 p. 66 Belenitsky, A.M., and Bentovich, I.B. "From the History of Central Asian Silk Weaving: Towards Identification of the Zandanechi Fabric." The Soviet Archeology, 1961, no. 2, pp. 66-78.
capital, Dadu (now known as Beijing). This historical episode underscores the esteemed reputation of Sogdian silk production and its significance in the Yuan dynasty's imperial court.14
For an extensive period, Zandana was renowned for its silk production within Central Asia and beyond its borders. In the 12th century, the inhabitants of Samarkand were known to recite poems celebrating the splendour of Zandanigi silk, underscoring its esteemed status and widespread acclaim as a symbol of luxury and craftsmanship: 'If we deserve a wavy and expensive caftan,/I will request from you only a zandaniji .15 In 1992, researcher A.A. Jerusalemskaya documented the discovery of various types of Sogdian silk, including approximately 150 fragments of Zandanigi silk, in diverse locations across the Caucasus region. Additionally, evidence of Sogdian silk was found in Europe, notably in the Belgian city of Huy. This widespread distribution attests to the extensive trade networks through which Sogdian silk travelled, reaching distant regions and leaving a lasting impact on global textile history.16.
The prestige and authority of the Sogdians grew from the Han dynasty and onwards during the reign of the Tang Empire (618-907). One of the most recent pieces of evidence of such an attitude can be found in modern-day literature. On the cover page of the book "Cosmopolitanism in the Tang Dynasty", by Valenstein S.G., one finds an image of a ceramic figurine of a Sogdian wine merchant.17 He was among those who assisted in crafting the cosmopolitan mentality among the ancient Chinese. Although the VIII century exemplified the unusual popularity of the Sogdian traders and dancers, it was also when thousands of innocuous (and wealthy) merchants in Yangzhou came under attack.18 Most of them were Sogdians.
The Sogdians' notable ability to navigate cultural diversity and maintain their distinct identity offers valuable insights into the broader cultural landscape of Central Asia, where communities were adept at preserving their individuality without succumbing to fears of assimilation or exclusion of the 'Other.' Indeed, the Sogdians can be viewed as pioneers in formulating a nuanced approach to mediation, acting as intermediaries between various cultural and religious spheres along the Silk Road. Their adeptness at bridging disparate cultures and facilitating exchange without compromising their own identity highlights the centrality of Central Asia as a hub of cultural interaction and synthesis throughout history.
REFERENCES
1. Bartold, V. Four Studies on the History of Central Asia. Vol. I. Translated by V. & T. Minorsky. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1956.
2. Belenitsky, A.M., and Bentovich, I.B. "From the History of Central Asian Silk Weaving: Towards Identification of the Zandanechi Fabric." The Soviet Archeology, 1961, no. 2, pp. 66-78.
3. Jerusalimskaya, A.A. Great Silk Road and Northern Caucasus. Leningrad: 1972.
4. Mamadazimov, Sh. Abdugani. The Great Silk Road: The History of Formation, Prosperity, and Collapse. Dushanbe, 2014.
5. Narshahi, Muhamad. History of Bukhara (Muhamad Narshahi Istoriyq Buharu). A brief review of the Institute of Asian Peoples, No. 69. Study of manuscripts and xylographs of the Institute of Asian Peoples. Accessed October 16, 2023. Available from: http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus12/Narsachi/otryv1.phtml?id=1418.
14 p. 123 Xinru, Liu. The Silk Road in a World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
15 [Agar jibbai khoraro mustakhakkem,/Zi tu bas kunam man ba yak zandanichi]
16 p. 34 Jerusalimskaya, A.A. Great Silk Road and Northern Caucasus. Leningrad: 1972.
17 Valenstein, Suzanne G. Cosmopolitanism in the Tang Dynasty: A Chinese Ceramic Figure of a Sogdian Wine-Merchant. 1st edition. Bridge 21 Publications, March 30, 2015.
18 P.40 Schafer, Edward H. H. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics. University of California Press, 1985. "
6. Schafer, Edward H. H. "The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics." New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
7. Valenstein, Suzanne G. Cosmopolitanism in the Tang Dynasty: A Chinese Ceramic Figure of a Sogdian Wine-Merchant. 1st edition. Bridge 21 Publications, March 30, 2015.
8. Vaissiere, E., and James Ward. Sogdian Traders: A History. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. Available from: http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Orie ntal Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%2QStudies/Sogdian Traders A Hist ory Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbook of Oriental Studies .pdf.
9. Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya, M. "The Leningrad Collection of the Sakish Business Documents and the Problem of the Investigation of Central Asian Texts." In Cadonna, A. (ed.), Turfan and Dunhuang: The Texts. Encounter of Civilizations on the Silk Route, Orientalia Venetiana, IV. Florence: Olschki, 1992, pp. 85-95.
