CC BY
53Date of publication: February 6, 2019 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2550837
Historical Sciences
SOCIAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA IN XIX CENTURY
A
Zabariushaya, Darya Konstantinovna1
1Bachelor, Voronezh State Technical University, Street 20 years of October, 84, Voronezh, Russia, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract:
In article describes social and economic development of Russia in XIX century. Special attention was paid to the study of different reforms of emperors of the time. They have radically changed the country to better side and put it on the path of intensive socio-economic development. Some of that reforms saved Russia from rebellions, others led to them. Modern scientists have the opportunity to analyze the errors of the time. Many people are interested in what caused these reforms and the consequences they brought. This article answers these questions.
Keywords: serfdom, social stratification, industrial revolution, autocracy, reforms.
I. INTRODUCTION
The XIX-th century became the decisive and critical period in the history of the Russian state. At this particular time an attempt to change society was made: from traditional (agrarian) to make industrial, that is to join the all-European process of upgrade. Imperial interests — the aspiration to save the status of the great country - induced the autocratic power to make advances to the ideas of the European liberalism. In the political sphere was spoken about personal freedom and dominance of interests of one person over collective; in economic - about the right of free personality activity and competition, about freedom of the contract between the employer and the worker. All these ideas differed greatly not only from political system, but also an economic system, not to mention cultural bases of Russians. Therefore the Russian emperors of that period knew well that attempts of their implementation in life will lead to huge contradictions. So the liberal conversions could not be consecutive in any way, as was shown in the Russian reality.
II. METHODOLOGY
Basis of this research became works of Russian scientists in Russian historiography area who in their investigations relied on chronicles and legends, princely and church charters, codes of laws and international contracts. Thus in the main part of this article was used ideografic method. Besides, in the article were used such methods like: periodizational method that allowed to study different periods of XIX century and compare them; thanks to chronological and problem method, became possible to consider main problems of each part of time, their solutions and their consequences for country and its' development; synchronic method helped to trace influence of different local reforms.
III. DISCUSSION
Many scientists were interested in this issue and studied it deeply in their works. In 1978 P.G. Ryndzyunsky tried (rather successfully) to examine the process of the formation of Russian capitalism in the light of the experience accumulated earlier in Soviet historiography. The most original and in-depth study of post-reform agriculture in Russia is the monograph by I. M. Druzhinin "Russian village at a turning point. In 1861-1880 There were published works on the history of Russian industry, in particular, "The History of the Metallurgical Industry in the USSR" by Strumilin and Solovyov. The industrial revolution in Russia in the X century (1990). The explosion of the country in protest in response to the reform of 1861 was the subject of a monograph by M. Ye. Naidenova.
Many pre-revolutionary Russian economists (A. Korsak, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, I. K. Ozerov, V. P. Vorontsov, and others) considered the government's policy regarding large-scale industry to be a negative factor in economic life that impeded free development. So, MI Tugan-Baranovsky and I.Kh. Ozerov took into account the consequences of forced industrialization. Proponents of Russia's industrial development came out against Finance Minister Witte, whose name was associated with a dynamic industrial development policy. The main discontent of contemporaries, was associated with injustice against the population as a whole.
The question of the chronology of the industrial revolution in Russia was discussed by our historians for three quarters of a century. O.N. Rozhkov moved his starting point to the beginning of the XIX century. Academician S. G. Strumilin believed that the industrial revolution, which began in the 1830s, was completed before the 1861 reform. Proceeding from the orthodox and Marxist preconditions, the industrial revolution changed the economic basis of society, and only after the basis was changed as a result of the reform of the 1860s. The add-in has been modified accordingly. Strumilin thought this: any reason precedes the stratification of society, therefore "it was not the industrial revolution that led to the industrial revolution in Russia, but on the contrary, this revolution prepared the inevitability of reforms." Thus, all scientists working in this direction have different views and opinions, and all of them are partly correct.
IV. RESULTS
At the beginning of the nineteenth century in the territory of the Russian Empire, there were 47 provinces and 5 regions, its area was 18 million kilometers, and the population - 74 million people. Provinces (since 1920 - the region and the region) were subdivided into counties (districts) and districts by volost (rural territories). Some groups of provinces were united in the province. By the middle of the nineteenth century, there were already 69 provinces and regions in the territory of the Russian Empire.
In a society of that period there was a social stratification. The chief adviser to Alexander I, Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky, singled out three large estates: the nobility, "medium status" (merchants, petty
bourgeois, state peasants) and "working people" (landowners, peasants, workers, servants). But you can also say that there were exclusive, semi-exclusive and tax-paying manor houses. The nobility, merchants, clergy and noble citizens belonged to the exclusive classes. Nobles (hereditary and personal) had the right to own residential estates and were free from taxes, corporal punishment, recruiting duty, obligatory military work, to which many of them went voluntarily, and immediately had the title of officer, who was also one of the privileges of the nobility, commoner was to serve him. In addition, the nobles had the advantage in obtaining titles and awards, occupied posts in the military and civil service, had the right to serve in the imperial court. Representatives of the clergy had the right to class self-government, ownership of land and serfs, were exempted from taxes, recruits and corporal punishment. The merchants were divided into three guilds. The first had the right to engage in domestic and foreign business, was exempted from military service and corporal punishment. The second had the right to conduct domestic trade. The third guild merchants had the right to engage in petty domestic trade in cities and counties, but were not exempted from paying taxes and recruiting duties. Honorary citizens were free from recruitment duty and corporal punishment, had the right to be elected to city public posts. By the middle of the nineteenth century appears -the Cossacks. The peasantry was the most numerous class. All farmers carried duties and paid taxes. By the end of the nineteenth century, the situation had changed somewhat.
The most serious problems of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the XIX century were: clearly demonstrated crisis of the feudal serf system, the impossibility of further developing agriculture in an extensive way, the prevalence of arbitrariness over the rule of law in everyday life, the lack of educated citizens capable of holding office. Serfdom greatly hampered the development of the country. Thus, the main tasks of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century were the modernization of production, the abolition of serfdom, the implementation of the ideas of liberalism and the improvement of the literacy of the population, education. The solution to these problems was the strengthening of the existing economic and socio-political system. This was also the main goal of the government of that time.
Alexander I did not share the political views of his father, Paul I, so he announced an amnesty for people who were punished during the reign of Paul I. This was one of his first reforms. That is, the emperor radically changed the course of the country's internal policy. In addition, in 1801, Alexander I returned the diplomas to the nobility and cities, which allowed free travel abroad and import foreign goods (including books), a secret expedition, a special supervisory body that was engaged in political and civil investigation, was eliminated. In fact, this place was taken Senate. By a decree of December 12, 1801, peasants and petty bourgeois were allowed to redeem land.
In 1802, major reforms were carried out in the local and state administration. By the Decree "On the Rights and Duties of the Senate" of September 8, the Senate became the supreme body of the empire. He united the highest administrative, judicial and control bodies. The manifesto "On the establishment of ministries" proclaimed a ministerial reform, developed by members of the Secret Committee - Speransky and Kochubey. This was done in 2 stages. First, 8 different ministries were created: the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, military ground forces, naval forces, internal affairs, finance, justice, commerce, national education. These ministries replaced the Petropavlovsk departments, destroyed by Catherine II and restored by Paul I. Now the minister resolved the issues individually. Ministries were divided into departments headed by directors; departments - in offices headed by department heads. The Committee of Ministers was established to discuss cases together. The second stage of the reform was carried out in a few years. On July 12, 1810, the manifesto "On the division of state affairs into a special administration," prepared by a member of the Secret Committee, M. M. Speransky, on June 25, 1811, approved the "General Establishment of Ministries".
In 1803, a reform of the public education system was carried out. Its main idea was that education should be accessible to all segments of the population, including the peasantry. The number of universities has increased. But the decree "On free plowmen" became one of the most significant and well-known reforms of Alexander I. Landowners had the right to liberate serfs as one after another, and whole villages with the provision of land to them. The peasants, as a rule, paid the ransom or performed duties for freedom, but they could also remain without unpleasant consequences, everything depended on the landowner.
Subsequently, this situation formed the basis of the 1861 reform. Despite the fact that under the government of Alexander I only a very small proportion of the peasants were released, the decree played an important role in the abolition of serfdom. Of course, Alexander I undertook other, smaller liberal reforms. In the field of education, free primary education for all was introduced, and educational institutions were divided into different categories: gymnasiums, church schools, district schools and universities. In major cities, all new higher education institutions have opened. Alexander I also introduced some standards of behavior: the first law on liberal censorship was approved.
In 1809, Mikhail Speransky prepared "Introduction to the Code of State Laws" - a plan for reforming the Russian Empire. It was supposed to introduce the following changes:
1. To divide the power into legislative (State Duma), executive (Ministries) and judicial (Senate);
2. create a State Council, a consultative body under the emperor, which was supposed to prepare draft
laws;
3. The division of society into 3 classes: noblemen, middle class (petty bourgeois, merchants, state peasants) and "working people";
4. provide all classes with state rights, and only the first two estates are political;
5. give the serfs the opportunity to redeem themselves and thereby "move" into the second class;
6. Make the State Duma electoral body.
7. The management of the Duma passed to the appointed chancellor appointed by the emperor.
After the publication of this project, Speransky, together with the Emperor, began to implement his
ideas. On January 1, 1810 an advisory body was created - the Council of State. Mikhail Speransky became his leader. In principle, this body was to become a provisional legislative body before the Duma was created. Also, the Council was to manage the empire of finance. But by 1812 only a small part of Speransky's ideas was implemented: the State Council was created and a ministerial reform was carried out. The plans of Alexander I also was the adoption of the Constitution. However, everything was limited to the adoption of the Constitution in Poland and the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic States.
Nikolaev reforms led Russia to a progressive growth of the economy and a change in the situation in the state for the better. Realizing that the country needs large-scale transformations, he sought to preserve and strengthen the autocracy and actively fought against the revolutionary movement and political unrest in the country. Despite this, the Nikolaev reforms were liberal.
The first reform undertaken by Nicholas I was the financial reform of Kankrin (Minister of Finance). This meant replacing paper banknotes, which by then had been heavily devalued, with credit signs, which were supported by the bank metals fund. A financial system was created, in which paper money was highly valued as metal.
When Nicholas I ascended to a throne, the Russian industry was in decline. There was no industry capable to become the worthy competitor to the West where by then there was already an industrial revolution. Only raw materials went for export. Almost all industrial goods necessary for the country were imported from - for borders. By the end of reign of Nicholas I the situation strongly changed. For the first time in the history of the Russian Empire the country technically advanced and competitive industry began to be formed, in particular, textile and sugar, production of metal wares, clothes, wooden, glass, porcelain, leather and other products developed, own machines, tools and even engines began to be made. According to economic historians, it was promoted by the protectionist policy pursued during all reign of Nicholas I. As Vallerstayn, owing to the protectionist industrial policy pursued by Nicholas I specifies, further development of Russia went not on that way on which at that time there was a majority of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and on other way — a way of industrial development.
According to the academician S.G. Strumilin, in Nicholas I's reign in Russia there was an industrial revolution similar to that began in England in the second half of the 18th century. As a result of intensive introduction of machines (mechanical weaving looms, steam-engines, etc.) the labor productivity sharply grew: from 1825 to 1863 annual development of products of the Russian industry grew by one worker by 3 times while during the previous period it not only did not grow, but even decreased. From 1819 to 1859 the
volume of release of cotton products of Russia increased almost by 30 times; the volume of machinebuilding products from 1830 to 1860 increased by 33 times.
Serf work in the industry was quickly forced out by free work what the government made considerable efforts for. In 1840 the decision of the State Council approved by Nicholas I was made on closing of all posessionny factories using serf work then only during 1840-1850, at the initiative of the government, more than 100 such factories were closed. By 1851 the number of posessionny peasants was reduced to 12-13 thousand while at the end of XVIII - the beginning of the 19th centuries their number exceeded 300 thousand.
In addition, Nicholas I opened the first St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and carried out the Russia's first railroad in 1837 year. Thanks to active construction of new branches, it's became possible to connect various industrial regions that promoted origin of new types of productions and development of the heavy industry. At Nicholas' there took place the first technological exhibition and the first was created. joint-stock company of cotton production.
Reforms affected also landowner land tenure. Corporal punishments for landowners were cancelled and the quantity of taxes is reduced. It became the main consequence of reform.
The country question was not disregarded too. Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century remained the agrarian country. Farmers made up the majority of the population. Country question was the main thing and required the immediate solution. But, the government was limited only to the half measures directed to easing of the serfdom. In 1841 a law was passed banning the sell of peasants alone, and without land; in 1843 - landless noblemen were deprived of the right to get serfs; in 1842 there was a law on "the obliged peasants" which developed the decree of 1803. A number of decrees of this period regulated the relations between landowners and peasants; fixed the sizes of country plots and duties; defined measures of possible punishment. Thus, the serfdom was not destroyed, but slave manifestations of a serfdom were liquidated.
In 1837 - 1841 reform of the state peasants was undertaken. It improved legal and financial position of the state peasants making about a third of the population. The created Ministry of the state imushchestvo, had to care for satisfaction of economic and domestic needs of subordinated peasants. At the same time, reform strengthened the bureaucratic pressure upon the state village and minimized activity of country self-government institutions (they began to depend on local administration). However changes had very contradictory character. Certainly, on the one hand support was given to business, a prosperous part of the village. However together with it taxes were amplified. As a result, the population responded to changes in the state village with mass revolts.
Education developed rather contradictory. On the one hand, the country's progressive development demanded its improvement and expansion, on the other hand, the government tried to establish tight control over it in all possible ways. In 1828 the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions was approved. A closed education system has been created (parish schools for the lower strata of the population; district schools for citizens of nonborodal origin; gymnasiums for children of noblemen and officials). In 1835, a new charter was adopted, depriving universities of much of the autonomy. Strict political control was established, strict regulation of university life was introduced, tuition fees were increased, student enrollment was reduced, and the teaching of state law and philosophy was abolished. An increase in government response to education occurred after the revolutionary upheavals that occurred in Western Europe in 18481849. Relations with Western Europe have deteriorated, foreigners are not allowed to enter Russia. The era of "acceptable terror" has begun. But life demanded the further development of higher education. Despite the measures taken by the government, educational institutions that were closed ahead of schedule were restored and new ones appeared that are prepared by specialists of a wide profile (technological, construction, border institutions, high school of jurisprudence, etc.).
The most important tool of ideological work with the people was the Orthodox Church. Much attention was paid to the "purity of the Orthodox religion," the maintenance of the state value of the church.
Because of the unrest in the country and the desire of Nicholas I to preserve authoritarian power. Strict censorship has been introduced. Many magazines, poets and writers were banned. The work has been carefully checked and refined. Therefore, their meaning rarely changes.
After the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II became the emperor. The government of this man was followed by "great reforms" that changed Russia for the better. In 1858, military settlements were liquidated. And in 1861 there was one of the most significant reforms for Russia: the abolition of serfdom. Its main conditions were:
• peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered "temporarily obliged"; the peasants acquired the rights of "free rural residents", that is, full civil legal capacity in all that did not concern their specific class rights and obligations - membership in a rural society and land ownership.
• Country houses, buildings, all personal property of peasants was recognized as their personal property.
• Peasants received elected self-government, rural society, the highest (administrative) unit — the parish was the lowest (economic) unit of self-government.
• landowners retained property throughout their land, but were obliged to provide the peasants with a "manor house with settled life" (the plot adjacent to the house) and a plot of land; The land of the field site was given to the peasants not personally, but for the collective use of a rural society, which could, at its discretion, distribute them among the peasant farms. The minimum size of the suburban area for each plot was established by law.
• In order to use the whole land, the peasants had to pay the landowner a land charge for 49 years.
• rural communities were granted the right to purchase an estate and, in agreement with the landowner, a land plot, after which all obligations of the peasants to the landowner ceased; The peasants who bought the land were called "host peasants". Peasants could also give up the right of redemption and receive land free of charge from the landowner in the amount of a quarter of the land they had the right to redeem; in the presence of an undeveloped plot, the temporary mandatory condition also ceased.
• The state on favorable terms provided landowners with financial guarantees for receiving redemption payments (redemption operation), receiving payments from them; The peasants, accordingly, had to pay redemption payments to the state.
After the peasant reform, the situation of the former serfs did not improve and, according to some estimates, it became worse. The peasants, too, were not satisfied with such a "holiday." Nevertheless, the reform became the basis for subsequent transformations and, possibly, saved the country from a bloody uprising.
For peasant reform was followed by financial. First of all, the principle of publicity was introduced, the state budget began to be published. This step was taken to reduce the waste of public funds.
In 1864-68, the managers of all government revenues were organized in the treasury structure of the Ministry of Finance. Later, in 1865, local financial management bodies and control chambers were created. To replace the independent cash offices of various government agencies (of which money often disappeared completely), the state treasury created a single cash office. The importance of financial control has increased. Taxation has become reminiscent of modern, with the division of taxes on direct and indirect, although the income tax is preserved.
The reform led to a decrease in corruption, and an increase in the efficiency of the financial system. The state can cope with the crisis and mitigate the effects of peasant reform.
The education reform ensured the adoption of a university charter. This gave universities more freedom of self-government, significantly increased their attractiveness for students and teachers, and increased the efficiency of educational institutions.
Territorial reform, which implies the introduction of self-government in rural areas, has led to an intensive development of the economy and culture.
The reform of the judicial system consisted in the creation of two branches of courts: magistrates courts and general congresses, each of which had two connections: justices of the peace, world congresses, district judges and district congresses. It was a jury. The powers of the investigators who conducted the
search were significantly expanded, and the investigation was divided into preliminary and judicial, which significantly reduced the likelihood of a judicial error. Thanks to these measures, the court has become more orderly, and its effectiveness has increased. The process has become more honest and open. The court became a separate institution. A representative of any class can count on his defense, and the defendant can appeal against the sentence.
The transitional nature of the historical development of post-reform Russia and the diversity of the economy led to the uniqueness of the social structure. Class division of society is preserved. The development of capitalism gradually changed the social structure and appearance of estates, two new social groups were formed - the classes of capitalist society (the bourgeoisie and the proletariat). The lines of the old and the new social order are intertwined. The dominant position in the country still belonged to the nobles. Some of their economic mitigation measures do not affect socio-political influence. The nobility remained a stronghold of autocracy and occupied key posts in the officials - the bureaucracy, the army and social life. The bourgeoisie, formed from merchants and representatives of rich peasantry, grew rapidly. Weak and unorganized, he supported the autocracy. Peasants remained the largest social group. Having received freedom in 1861, they hardly adapted to a new social position. For this class continued numerous restrictions in various social spheres. The community limited the legal, economic and personal life of the peasant. The community slowed down the social stratification of the peasants, but could not prevent it. However, the penetration of capitalist relations in the countryside contributed to the division of the peasants into fists (the rural bourgeoisie) and the bulk of the poor and half-ruined peasantry. The impoverished peasantry and the urban poor were the source of the formation of the proletariat. The peculiarity of the working class of Russia was that it did not break ties with the countryside. Therefore, the maturing of the cadre proletariat proceeded slowly. In Russia, there were labor and living conditions, there were no trade unions and an insurance system for workers. All this raised them to fight for economic rights. Attempts by the government through the publication of factory laws to intervene in the relationship of entrepreneurs and workers were ineffective. The anti-government activities of the revolutionaries found fertile ground for proletarian discontent with the rigid system. The social structure of post-reform Russia and the plight of the population hid within themselves the beginnings of powerful social upheavals of the early 20th century.
V. CONCLUSION
For Russia the beginning of the 19th century - one of the greatest critical era. Traces of this period are grandiose in the fate of the Russian Empire. On the one hand it is lifelong prison for most of its' citizens where the people were in poverty, and 80% of the population remained illiterate. If to look on the other hand, Russia in this time is the homeland of great, contradictory, liberation movement from Decembrists to social democrats which led the country closely to democratic revolution twice. At this particular time cultural wealth which remains unsurpassed to this day (A.S. Pushkin and L.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, F.I. Shalyapin's creation) began to be created. Reputedly, Russia looked extremely diverse in the 19th century, knowing both triumphs, and humiliations.
In estimates of the Russian transformations of the first half of the XIX century it is difficult to draw unambiguous conclusions. Here, certainly, there were both achievements, and miscalculations.
Most of historians agree with opinion that the serfdom could be repealed at Alexander I. Patriotic war of 1812 was a convenient prerequisite for this purpose. If such solution was for half a century till 1861 -Russia would carry out reforms in economy, in policy, in the system of defense of the state much earlier. Besides, the course of further history of the country could be civilized and without revolution.
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