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28Revising the Conceptual Integration Researcii
f r « Article
Network: A Case for Contextually Sensitive Mental Spaces
Lee Daniels
Abstract
Conceptual integration theory provides elegant and comprehensive account of our dynamic, creative, and active in-the-moment conceptualisation system. It facilitates the often-emergent nature of our meaning constructions, which are continuously produced through linguistic and non-linguistic means. Few would argue against its importance for the development of the cognitive linguistic discipline, and our general understanding of conceptual operations. However, this article highlights and discusses a recurrent critique of this conceptual framework. A critique in the form of inadequate contextual representation in the on-line meaning making process. A socio-cognitive approach is thus applied, and a dynamic, interaction-focused, and socially subjective understanding of context is introduced. A framework revision of conceptual integration is then proposed that notably features the inclusion of a self space and an other space, which centre around self-, and other-identity conceptualisations respectively. This is argued as sufficiently facilitating the dynamic contextual role. A corpus methodology is then applied based on the empirical measuring of conceptual metaphor. The findings presented thereafter tentatively evidence the proposed novel contextually sensitive mental spaces, and in-turn, the proposed framework revision.
Received:
7 February 2022 Reviewed: 20 April 2022 Accepted: 30 June 2022 Published: 12 July 2022
Keywords
cognitive linguistics; socio-cognitive linguistics; corpus linguistics; conceptual integration theory; conceptual metaphor theory; context; identity; metaphoric pattern analysis
UDC:
81'23+81'373.612.2
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, Lancaster, England, LA1 4YW
Corresponding author:
Lee Daniels (Mr), [email protected]
For citation:
Daniels, Lee. 2022. "Revising the Conceptual Integration Network: A Case for Contextually Sensitive Mental Spaces." Language. Text. Society 9 (1). https://lts).online/2022-09-l-daniels.
Language. Text. Society
Vol. 9 No. 1, 2022
ISSN 2687-0487
Introduction
Conceptual integration theory, or blending (Fauconnier and Turner 1998, 2002), is a seminal milestone within cognitive linguistics. It is described as a powerful language processing network (Gibbs 2000; Ritchie 2004), which provides rigorous and illustrative account of the cognitive creativity purported to underpin our linguistic output (Gibbs 2000). However, the theory still faces certain critique, in that it fails to provide sufficient account of the contextual role in meaning making (Brandt and Brandt 2005; Pascual 2009; Stadelmann 2012). The goal of this article is thus to attempt a correction of this insufficiency.
Initially, this article introduces conceptual integration theory, along with its beneficial applications. It then outlines the inadequate role assigned to context within current blending theory. Hallidayan context, and Bucholtz and Hall's (2010) work on identity construction, is subsequently introduced and argued as possessing the required criteria to sufficiently represent context within online meaning making. Cognitive limitations of conceptual integration theory are then discussed, focusing on the issue of the generic space. A contextually sensitive integration framework is subsequently proposed, which centres around conceptual identity constructions of the self and the other, including their mutually co-constitutive relationship. This is represented via the novel contextual mental spaces of the self space, and the other space. A corpus linguistic methodology is adopted including Stefanowitsch's (2006) metaphoric pattern analysis on sampled data from the British National Corpus (1994) and the Spoken British National Corpus (2014). Analysis is thus presented that observes the effect that varying other identities (speakers within interaction) have on conceptual integration production, and the effect that varying self-identities (discourse genre) have on conceptual integration production. Overall findings are then provided followed by a conclusion where potential implications are discussed.
Literature review Conceptual integration theory
Conceptual integration (CIT hereafter), established by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (1998, 2002), is described as an uncostly and dynamic "general cognitive operation... [which] serves a variety of purposes" (1998, 133). Its operation represents in-the-moment conceptualisations that involve the projection and integration of conceptual elements across a conceptual network. A process that results in meaning often emerging as a blended product. CIT utilises key elements from mental spaces theory (Fauconnier 1994) and conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). As such, these theories are briefly introduced and discussed.
Mental spaces theory, developed by Gilles Fauconnier (1994), centres around the notion of the mental space. These mental spaces are defined as temporary packets of relevant (to the moment) information extracted from conceptual domains, domains being the coherent organisation(s) of experience stored within the mind (Kovecses 2010). Fauconnier (1994) subsequently attests meaning to be the dynamically generated product of interlinking mental spaces within the on-line conceptualisation plane, which represents in-the-moment cognition.
Conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980), asserts our "ordinary conceptual system. [to be] fundamentally metaphorical in nature." (p. 1). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) also employ the notion of the conceptual domain, for they claim some domains are consistently represented and applied in metaphoric processes. Specifically, a domain with more concrete knowledge, a source domain, is one way mapped to a domain with more abstract knowledge, a target domain. As such,
comprehension of the target domain and the abstract concept therein, is facilitated. As example, wasting my time, invested my time, or spent my time, are linguistic metaphor realisations of the conceptual metaphor TIME (the target domain) IS MONEY1 (the source domain).
There is, however, presence of some inherent limitations within conceptual metaphor theory. The initial limitation arises from complex conceptualisations exampled by THE GRIM REAPER. That is, this conceptual product is not the result of a single conceptual metaphor mapping on a pre-determined route from a source domain to a target domain. It is instead the result of two conceptual metaphors, PLANTS ARE PEOPLE and EVENTS ARE ACTIONS, mutually interacting, with one not taking priority of meaning over the other. As such, this multi-directionally mapped metaphoric product, with emergent novel meaning, is incompatible with the conceptual metaphor theory. A further limitation, outlined by Kovecses (2010), is exampled by the metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER, and its linguistic realisation, steam was coming out of his ears. As Kovecses notes (2010), the source domain contains "hot fluid. which produces steam when heated" (p. 273), and the target domain "a person who is getting more and more angry showing signs of losing control" (p. 273). However, conceptual metaphor theory provides no place for the resultant conceptualisation, that is, the angry person with steam coming out of his ears. The presence of the conceptual issues thus provided suitable need to provide a "fuller account of the cognitive work that goes into the creation of such expressions on the part of the speakers." (Kovecses 2010, 274).
Illustrated in Figure 1, Fauconnier and Turner (1998) present the composition of CIT. The input mental spaces within the network feature exclusive conceptual structures extracted from the relevant domains. The generic space facilitates the similarities of the inputs spaces by containing "what the inputs have in common" (1998, 137). Finally, the blended space acts as the mental space, within which, conceptual structures from the inputs are projected. Subsequently, novel emergent meaning-structure appears within this space, after a multidirectional process of integration occurs across the conceptual network. Fauconnier and Turner (1998) utilise Koestler's (1964) puzzle of inferential problem-solving to exemplify the ability of CIT.
1 Uppercase represents conceptual metaphor and conceptual domains.
Generic Space
input l,
Blend
Figure 1. An illustration of the conceptual integration network Source: Fauconnier and Turner 1998, 143.
A Buddhist monk begins at dawn one day walking up a mountain, reaches the top at sunset, meditates at the top for several days until one dawn when he begins to walk back to the foot of the mountain, which he reaches at sunset. Making no assumptions about his starting or stopping or about his pace during the trips, prove that there is a place on the path which he occupies at the same hour of the day on the two separate journeys (p. 183).
Blended Space
Figure 2. Monk riddle mapped within the conceptual integration network Source-. Fauconnier and Turner 1998,141.
As per Figure 2, Fauconnier and Turner (1998) project the riddle onto the CIT framework. They place the two monks, travelling at different times, into the separate input spaces. Similarities of setting exist within the generic space, that is, the route, the location, and the denotational elements of a stereotypical monk. However, it is the result of these space mapping with one another, culminating in the blended space, that is "... crucial to the performance of the reasoning task." (p. 141). In the blended space, novel emergent structure arises that forms the creative inferential solution, that is, "two travelers going in opposite directions on the same path and necessarily meeting each other." (p. 141). Therefore, the inferential meaning/solution is not generated as a summation of its isolate conceptual parts, it is in fact the result of a complex and selective conceptual integration process.
The composition of CIT also provides solution to the issues raised with conceptual metaphor theory. In that, CIT facilitates both the unidirectional conceptual metaphor, and the multidirectional nature of certain conceptual structures, exampled by THE GRIM REAPER. Furthermore, a place is now provided for the novel emergent structure, exampled by the angry person with steam coming out of his ears. Conceptual metaphor is thus attested as one of the many conceptual processes occurring within the more adaptable CIT, and as such it is embedded therein.
Conceptual integration network has thus been outlined and evidenced as a powerful language network. However, this article argues that there is still need to provide fuller account in representing the creative cognitive work completed by the speaker. In other words, as per Stadelmann (2012), CIT "still largely neglects the. context-sensitive dimension of meaning-making" (p. 36).
The role of context in meaning
This article adopts and employs a Hallidayan understanding of context, defined by its components as outlined below. That is, context is, "the main social activity taking place, the people involved in it (plus the way they relate to one another), and the roles and functions of the text within this social activity-known technically in systemic functional linguistics as 'field', tenor and mode" (Figueiredo 2010, 124).
In other words, context "is a theoretical construct for explaining how a text relates to the social processes within which it is located" (Halliday 1978, 10). A text, in this sense being any instance of language in any communicative medium. As outlined, context is comprised of key dynamic components, the type of ongoing of social action, the participants involved, including their relationship, and the role and function language is performing therein. Thus, the ongoing positioning (via language) of a participant in relation to (an) other participant(s), as informed by the relative social action and its roles therein, generates context. What's more, such components inform and construct the other, that is, they are mutually co-constitutive.
CIT appears subsequently defunct when applying this contextual understanding. In establishing CIT, Fauconnier and Turner (1998) claim the role of contextual understanding to be nothing more than a product of common sense, with its role assigned to background conceptual frames2 within the offline plane. Some reference to context is implied via the blended space processes of elaboration and completion. Elaboration being the blending process where a conceptual structure is elaborated upon through "imaginative mental simulation according to principles and logic" (p. 144). However, what these principles and logics are, remains ill-defined. Completion is outlined as an additional blending process which involves employing a "background of conceptual structure[s] and knowledge without recognising it consciously" (p. 144). The role of context is therefore again implied, yet little autonomy is assigned to the individual cognisor. Individual application of contextual knowledge within CIT is somewhat implied via conceptual biases, which pertain to the selective recruitment of "our most favoured patterns of knowing and thinking" (p. 162). Such biases seemingly seep into the blended space via "defaults, prototypes, category information, conventional scenarios, and any other routine knowledge" (p. 162).
The examples provided in establishing CIT make little reference to the Hallidayan contextual components outlined. In fact, it appears that Fauconnier and Turner (1998) employ a contextual understanding merely in the form of static setting, that is, only providing details of place, time, and agents involved on a superficial level. The Buddhist monk riddle demonstrates this contextual deficiency. The contents of any discussion between the monks, if any interaction occurs at all, is not outlined. The interpersonal dynamics of the two monks, combined with the implications of an event where one meets oneself, is not outlined. Furthermore, the endless possibilities of how an individual may conceptually engage with this text, as informed by their cultural, relative social group, or other idiosyncratic factors, is also not outlined. Nevertheless, the sheer imaginative freedom that an individual may assign to a contextual event, and the vast variation therein, as motivated by relative socio-cultural value systems, presents such a case for the influential role of context over meaning-making, that attempts to reduce its impact appear counter-intuitive.
The argumentation outlined so far suggests that a holistic account of both the conceptual and contextual must be considered in order to represent the meaning-making process more sufficiently. Such thinking is not isolate, there are a growing number of calls for the cognitive linguistic discipline to adopt a more socio-cognitive focus (Geeraerts 2005; Croft 2009; Stadelmann 2012). This would, as per Croft (2009), seek to bridge the counter-intuitive separation of the social and psychological dimensions in the study of human behaviour, via a recognition that "... all human cognising is situated in social, historical and material" (Stadelmann 2012, 35). As such, this article employs the socio-cognitive approach.
Self and other contextual spaces
The inclusion of a mental space that facilitates self-identity conceptualisations, is argued as part-addressing the outlined contextual deficiency. The role of the individual in meaning is initially
2 Conceptual structure featuring the organised elements of social life (Fauconnier and Turner, 1998).
established in the founding principle of cognitive linguistics itself, "Meaning 'reflects the needs, interests, and experiences of individuals and cultures' - that is, meaning is perspectival" (Geeraerts and Cuyckens 2007, 5).
Bucholtz and Hall (2010) notably argue for the role of the individual in social meaning via their work on identity construction through language. They claim that an individual intentionally, or habitually, constructs multiple identities via everyday negotiation-type processes. An identity construction that is operating continuously and dynamically within varying social categories. These categories are understood as, our in-the-moment "temporary and interactionally specific stances and participant roles", our "local ethnographically specific cultural positions", and our 'macrolevel demographic categories" (p. 21). This nuanced and complex process of identity construction is seemingly in-line with Hallidayan context, for identity construction is reflecting the contextual needs, interests, and experiences of the individual. The mutually co-constitutive criterion is also observed, as the relevant social activities that inform identity are continuously influenced by varying, subjectively defined, social categories occurring from the local, to the macro-level. Furthermore, Bucholtz and Hall (2010) argue identity to be one of many linguistic resources that are "... best viewed as [an] emergent product rather than [a] pre-existing source of linguistic or other semiotic practices.." (p. 19). Thus, context-friendly, identity conceptualisations appear applicable to/within CIT's blending practices.
Bucholtz and Hall (2010) introduce a further condition that is argued as representing the holistic criteria required in sufficiently addressing CIT's contextual inadequacy. That is, in constructing identity, an individual does not only position themselves in relation to variant social categories, but also to the other individual(s) involved in the social interaction. In other words, "identity is the social positioning of self and other" (p. 18). Bucholtz and Hall (2010) further elaborate upon this, by stating that the identity of the other is not constructed by the other themselves, but by what the individual cognisor (self) perceives that other to be. That is, an other conceptualisation, as informed by the self's subjective social categories and ongoing dynamics of the local discourse(s). As such, Hallidayan context is holistically addressed via the addition of other-identity conceptualisation. For the mutually co-constitutive relationship between the people involved (self and other(s)), the way they relate to one another, and how they relate to the social activity taking place, is represented.
The skill of "introspection, modelling the behaviour of other individuals. [and] reasoning by analogy of. own experiences" (Clayton et al. 2007, 520), has founding in socio-cognitive research. Premack and Woodruff (1978) claim, via the theory of mind, that humankind possesses the ability to impute, and reflect upon, the believed mental states of others. They further note that via this capability we "make predictions about the behavior of others" (p. 515) including "knowledge, belief, thinking, doubt, guessing, pretending, liking, and so forth" (p. 515). Nicholas Humphrey (1976) provides function to the theory of mind through the social function of intellect hypothesis, attesting our ability to survive the socio-politics of the complex social world to be the primary driving force in shaping primate intelligence. The work of Bucholtz and Hall (2010) has thus been outlined and evidenced as sufficiently representing this article's socio-cognitive approach, and as such, provides the criteria required for a context-sensitive CIT revision.
The generic space
This article has so far argued for the contextual role to be included in a revitalised CIT, so that real-world conceptualisations may be sufficiently illustrated and analysed. It thus stands to reason that the context, within which those conceptualisations occur, must also be considered. This subsequently raises the issue of the generic space within CIT.
The generic space is a "template for shared structure" (Evans 2019, 532). A post-hoc tool to analyse "decontextualised, isolated examples that are not embedded in local contexts" (Stadelmann
2012, 30). This space facilitates the addition of abstraction from the input spaces (Hougaard 2004). However, an operational redundancy is indicated, for if we are to consider the local context within which blending occurs, conceptualisations requiring excessive cognitive expenditure, would not be tolerated. The efficiency of the cognitive-conceptual machine has support in numerous research. A limit of cognitive processing, constraining the operational design of our cognitive-computational architecture, has been well-attested (Attwell and Gibb 2005; Sterling and Laughlin 2015; Pepperell 2018). Sweller (1988) claims our working memory to possess limited capacity, stipulating that those activities which do not contribute to learning are avoided. This is to avoid an increase in cognitive load leading to our subsequent conceptual abilities being over-strained, and consequently restricted. In terms of the cognitive linguistic, Lai et al. (2009) compares the cognitive processing requirements of conventional and novel conceptual metaphors. Conventional metaphors are understood as "... familiar and readily interpretable" (p. 145), such as TIME IS MONEY, and novel conceptual metaphors as "possible new ways of thinking, for example, 'THEORIES ARE FATHERS'" (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Lai et al. (2009) thus concludes that the mappings required in the comprehension of novel metaphors, are more cognitively taxing compared to their conventional counterparts.
The notions of conceptual cost and cognitive load are implied in Fauconnier's own mental spaces theory (1994). Conceptual divisions that separate the on-line and the offline plains are included within the framework, so that the vast and varied conceptual domains are not present within the online. In fact, this conceptual topography seemingly motivates Fauconnier (1994) to introduce the temporary, and smaller, mental space. The blending processes within CIT are also commonly referred to as uncostly (Fauconnier and Turner 1998). Therefore, CIT processes are evidently subject to conceptual limitations, in the form of a cognitive-load type sensitivity. The removal of the superfluous generic space, and sensitivity to possible limitations of CIT function, must then be enacted in any CIT revision.
A revised conceptual integration network
As the relevant argumentation, and subsequent criteria have been outlined, this article now introduces a CIT revision that is more sensitive to context's influence over meaning-making.
Relevant domains
Figure 3. A contextually sensitive conceptual integration network
As per Figure 3, a self space and an other space have been added to facilitate self-, and other-identity conceptualisations. Their mutually co-constitutive nature has been represented via the comparably greater number of mappings bridging them. In-keeping with the traditional CIT model, individuals may intentionally or habitually map elements. As with the input spaces, the constructions within the self and other space may be affected by various factors, which would then inform the relevant domains. However, a horizontal line has been included between the input spaces, and the novel contextual spaces, to act as a conceptual projection barrier. This is included for if any elements were to map from the contextual spaces, into the inputs, meaning/inference would be generated in either space. As such, meaning could then occur anywhere within the on-line conceptual plane, regardless of intended input or organisation. The generic space has been removed, and a line has been added to act as an additional conceptual barrier between the on-line and the offline plane. This also reflects the reasoned limitations to in-the-moment conceptualisation. The greater contextual adequacy of this CIT revision is now demonstrated.
Figure 4. The monk riddle mapped within a contextually sensitive conceptual integration network
Input space mappings have not been included as they are indicated in Figure 2 and remain unchanged. In Figure 4, a context where a cognisor is engaging with Koestler's Buddhist monk riddle (1964) is displayed. However, contextual nuance is included in the form of a transgender cognisor currently initiating the medical gender transition process from male to female. As such, when introspecting on the riddle, they may enact the following. In the self space, the cognisor may construct the self's identity as the two Monks, as this is relative to their own wants, needs and experiences. That is, being socially defined as one gender, but identifying as two3. A recognised conceptual phenomenon in the form of the divided person metaphor, where "a single entity, is understood as a group of two entities" (Lakoff 1993). Lederer (2015, 107) links this to transgender individuals, who "feel mismatched between two genders", where "transition is a process of harmonizing the two" (p. 107). This established, and as informed by subjectively defined socio-contextual factors, an individual may reference the transition process as lengthy and an uphill struggle. This is a conceptual construction, amongst others, that has been commonly ascribed to discourses constructed by transgender individuals in the transition process (Webster 2018a).
3 The current male self and the ideal female self.
In the example provided, the self-space identity construction may then map to the other space in order to construct the other monk's identity as their own fully realised self (female). This would then motivate the other space to interpret the descending monk as their realised self completing their journey (descending from the hill). Therefore, within the blended space, the current self-identity conceptualisations would part-actively position itself relative to the ideal other-identity conceptualisations, creating/reinforcing a novel identity via metaphoric analogy. An analogy, that may possibly be in the form of a novel-blended conceptual structure of a male-female identity initiating a long-uphill journey, and then meeting their ideal-self completing their journey. This novel structure may even create motivation and resolve for the cognisor, which could feed back into the relative offline domains and possibly beyond. Nevertheless, CIT still produces emergent structure, but it is now acutely representing the various dynamic contextual factors of complex social meaning.
The inclusion of conceptual barriers permits this revision to be sensitive to real-world conceptual limitations, such as cognitive-load-strain management. This is illustrated in the figures below, which signify and illustrate that CIT may be overloaded via the newly included conceptual barriers constricting its output.
Figure 5. An overloaded self space in a contextually sensitive conceptual integration network
Figure 5 illustrates an individual under pressure to enact a nuanced identity requiring a significant set of self-space mappings. In this example, the individual is involved in a debate on food poverty as part fulfilment of an undergraduate degree. Subsequently, this individual must construct an identity relative to the local discourse event, but also attempt to construct an identity that fulfils the imputed assessor and audience (others') expectations. Such considerations may then restrict CIT output due to the diversion of cognitive resource to the self space, resource that would otherwise facilitate common conceptual production, such as the ability to produce cognitively taxing metaphor (i.e. novel conceptual metaphor).
In Figure 6, a similar overload may occur from an individual attempting to strenuously construct a nuanced identity via a large set of other-space mappings. As example, the individual may be meeting their partner's family for the first time. Akin to Humphrey's (1976) social survivability notion (via theory of mind), the individual may attempt to impute states for each family member to maximise social desirability. This conceptual volume would then theoretically divert resource to the other space, and again, may leave blend-production(s) constricted.
This revision also indicates the susceptibility of the novel spaces to be overloaded due to their intrinsically intertwined nature, and the multidirectional mapping processes of CIT. As example, the debate of Figure 5 may be occurring within the family context of Figure 6. This may then consequently lead to the self, and other space exponentially overloading each other, due to their highly co-constitutive relationship, as outlined in Figure 7. Thus, CIT may then be adversely affected by such cognitive load-strain, which may constrict its ability to produce cognitively taxing metaphor, or complex identity, from the blended space.
Materials and methods
This article applies the corpus linguistic methodology in its attempt to provide support to the purported revision. The corpus linguistic methodology utilises corpora, which are usually "large ..., representative samples of a particular type of naturally occurring language ..." (Baker 2006, 2). These corpora are subjected to "a set of procedures, or methods, for studying language." (McEnery and Hardie 2011, 1). These procedures are usually stringent, systematic, and subject to rigorous principles. Thus, utilisation of corpora usually allows the user to ascribe significant representativeness, balance, and generalisability to any subsequent findings, provided their approach is reflective of such. Furthermore, certain specialised corpora provide access to authentic language in real-world discourses, which consequently facilitates study of the contextual factors naturally occurring therein. Additionally, common corpus analytical tools provide notable benefit. Word frequency lists permit quick and easy quantitative account of any words chosen for analysis, and thus any conceptual phenomenon argued as associated to them. Additionally, local context-spans of text lines, also known as concordance lines, provide the visualisation of immediate linguistic contexts. This may then assist the extraction and categorisation of any such conceptual phenomena.
The application of a corpus-based approach also has its benefits in somewhat addressing a recurrent critique aimed at cognitive-linguistic focused research, that is, its lack of empirical support. Subsequently, the findings posited therein have often been argued as subject to unchecked bias,
without the presence of a falsifiable, representative and generalisable methodology provided to support them (Arppe et al. 2010).
The British National Corpus (1994) and the Spoken British National Corpus (2014)
The Written British National Corpus 2014 was not accessible at the time of writing this article. Consequently, the first corpus of two selected for data extraction, is the one-hundred-million-word British National Corpus 1994 (BNC hereafter). The BNC's texts are ninety percent written and ten percent orthographically transcribed. Seventy-five percent of the BNC's texts are a proportionate representation of applied sciences, arts, belief and thought, commerce and finance, leisure, natural and pure science, social science, and world affairs. The remaining twenty-five percent represents imaginative literary and creative works. Sixty percent of its texts are books, twenty-five percent periodicals (i.e. newspapers) and the remaining fifteen percent are miscellaneous published (i.e. brochures) and unpublished (i.e. personal letters) texts. The timespan of production for these contents is from 1960 to 1993 (University of Oxford 2009). The BNC's spoken-context-governed section features equal quantities of speech recorded in "broad categories of social context" (University of Oxford 2009). These categories are, educational and informative events (i.e. news broadcasts), business events (i.e. sales demonstrations), institutional and public events (i.e. political speeches) and finally, leisure events (i.e. sports commentaries). The BNC's encoded metadata allows for complex search-queries of these texts, such as via, region, gender of author, audience age, and class, to list a few.
The second corpus selected for data extraction is the eleven-and-a-half-million-word Spoken British National Corpus 2014. The Spoken British National Corpus (SBNC hereafter) features "transcripts of recorded conversations, gathered from members of the UK public between 2012 and 2016" (University of Lancaster 2021). This sub-corpus also features encoded metadata that facilitates complex search-queries, such as via, region, gender of speaker, number of speakers involved in interaction, language, and dialect, to list a few. A notable aspect of the SBNC is that its participants were non-intrusively recorded using built-in recording devices in their smartphones. Consequently, the choice to utilise the SBNC over the spoken subset of BNC (1994) is justifiable via several observations. Initially, the SBNC features a slightly larger sample of spoken data. Secondly, the spoken data in the SBNC was collated using less intrusive recording methods than that of the BNC (1994), which was completed by an individual with a tape recorder present in the interactions. As such, language greater in authenticity may be claimed as more present within the former. Finally, the more contemporary SBNC has the additional benefit of being created after two decades of stringent corpus collation procedures. This is not detrimental to the BNC 1994 however, as the BNC2014, and its subsets, is being collated with the aim of attempting to match the 1994 parameters.
These corpora subsequently provide vast, representative, and proportionate access to both the highly discourse varied written form, and the naturally produced authentic spoken form. This combined with the manipulation possible via the search functionalities therein, provide ample opportunity to observe the desired phenomena.
Stefanowitsch's metaphoric pattern analysis (2006)
Metaphoric pattern analysis (MPA hereafter) is an analytical framework that facilitates the empirical measurement of conceptual metaphor via corpora. Its process focuses on what Stefanowitsch notes as a metaphoric pattern, or a multi-word expression which represents a conceptually metaphoric
relationship. Stefanowitsch (2006) specifies that a metaphoric pattern is a string of words that comes from the source domain and has a word from the target domain inserted in it.
The process of MPA involves selecting a target domain commonly mapped upon by the source domain, for example, source domain HEAT to target domain ANGER. After this selection, a representative word of the target domain is chosen. In the example provided, this could be anger. A basic search of this word is then performed in a corpus. A sample extract is taken, from which, metaphorical expressions are identified by finding the source domains utilised to conceptualise the target. These conceptual metaphor expressions are thus extracted, collated, and total occurrence logged (N), as illustrated in Table 1 below. As example the metaphor frenzy of anger would be reviewed, extracted, and classified under the source domain INSANITY, due to the lexical trigger of frenzy.
Table 1. Metaphorical patterns manifesting ANGER metaphors posited in the literature
ANGER/BEING ANGRY IS. N
HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER boiling/simmering anger, anger boil (up)/simmer (inside X/beneath surface), anger seethe through X, anger boil over (into action), anger reach boiling point, X boil/seethe with anger, X keep lid on anger, X vent anger (against Y), Xgive vent to anger, seething of anger 26
FIRE burning/flaring/searing anger, X burn/smoulder/spark with anger, X fan/fuel/spark stoke (Y's) anger, resentment burn into anger, anger blaze into hatred, anger burn inside X, anger spark/flare (in X's eyes), anger scorch X, anger rekindle X's eye, flare/flame(s) of anger, presence of anger in fire, X's eyes blaze/be ablaze with anger 35
INSANITY frenzy of anger 2
Source: Stefanowitsch 2006, 74.
Method
The scope and scale of this article prevented a large-scale analysis of numerous target domains. Consequently, as per Table 2, Shutova and Teufel's (2010) list of most utilised target domain concepts in metaphor was utilised. The decision was taken to make use of the three most common target domains within the BNC. This would then balance sufficient data coverage with manageable datasets for analysis.
Table 2. Most frequent target domain concepts
Target concepts
LIFE DEATH
TIME/MOMENT IN TIME
FUTURE
PAST
CHANGE
PROGRESS/EVOLUTION/DEVELOPMENT
SUCCESS/ACCOMPLISHMENT
CAREER
FEELINGS/EMOTIONS
ATTITUDE/VIEWS
MIND
IDEAS
KNOWLEDGE PROBLEM TASK/DUTY FREEDOM
SOCIAL/ECONOMIC/POLITICAL SYSTEM RELATIONSHIP
Source: Shutova and Teufel 2010, 3257.
In-line with MPA, representative words of these target domains were selected, i.e. idea for IDEAS, dead for DEATH or free for FREEDOM. A word-frequency search (per million words) was then completed via the BNC utilising the open-access corpus analytical software CQPweb (Hardie, 2012). Accordingly, the most common were time at 3,031.3 occurrence per million words, life at 803.8 occurrence per million, and mind at 519.2 occurrence per million, respectively.
A parameter for analysis was set in the form of a fifty-concordance-line limit per search query extraction, with the results additionally randomised. This again ensured manageable datasets for analysis, with the randomising feature reducing any threat of selective bias. A further parameter was set by using data only produced from speakers between the ages of nineteen and fifty-nine. This was to reduce the risk of any later-life cognitive interference affecting conceptual output. An example would be Dementia, with its prevalence increasing "exponentially with increasing age, and doubl(es)[-ing] every five years of age after age sixty-five" (Hugo and Ganguli, 2014, 422).
Other-identity conceptualisations, as the most salient variable affecting CIT production, was considered first. As argued and illustrated in Figure 6, increased demand of other-identity conceptualisations, may adversely affect CIT production. Thus, by varying the number of speakers, and utilising the authentic language of the SBNC, empirical analysis of this effect was possible. That is, the increasing/decreasing the number of speaker present in interaction, equates itself to the increasing/decreasing number of imputed other conceptualisations required to represent them. Any adverse effect on CIT production should then be quantifiable via the MPA measurement of metaphoric output (a CIT embedded process), at each speaker level. Should any such effect be observed, preliminary evidence would then be provided that imputed other conceptualisations are elements of context that influence the complexity of on-line meaning-making. An effect that would also then tentatively evidence the presence of the other space, where such conceptualisations have been argued to occur.
MPA for the assigned target domain word was performed along a scale of present speakers, beginning at two speakers, and ending at nine (S2 - 9). Conceptual metaphor frequencies and types were then extracted and plotted against those speaker levels. There were certain speaker levels featuring less than the required fifty concordance lines, which motivated a further parameter. That is, datasets were only utilised if their source texts were greater than, or equal to three. This then ensured some diversity of data. However, instances where this was the case was noted.
Self-identity conceptualisations, as the most salient variable affecting CIT production, was then considered. As argued and illustrated in Figure 5, increased demand of self-identity conceptualisations may adversely affect CIT production. Therefore, contexts are required where self-identity conceptualisation requirements are sufficiently distinct from one another, so as to allow for comparative analysis. The BNC's spoken-context-governed broad categories of social context, facilitate this through its discourses of, educational and informative events, business events, institutional and public events, and leisure events. A brief inclusion of relevant research provides evidence to the distinctive identities required of these discourses. Pan and Kosicki (1993) note the informative event discourse requires an individual to perform 'an increasingly proactive approach to amplify [their] views of what an issue is about'. (p. 55). Natkho (2019) notes the priority of self-interest within business event discourse. Scollon (2008) argues an inherently competitive, yet non-coercive identity of the institutional and public events discourse. Finally, Rada (1996) asserts the leisure discourse identity to be one with a heavy focus on providing entertainment, as well as descriptive information. Consequently, the following genres were selected from these discourses to represent the evidently distinctive identities therein, broadcast: discussion (informative event discourse), demonstrations (business event discourse), unscripted speech, scripted speech, parliament (public event discourse) and sports commentaries (leisure discourse).
Should any adverse effect on CIT production then be observed, it may be argued as the result of the varied self-conceptualisation requirements caused by the distinctive discourse identities. This would then preliminarily evidence that self-identity conceptualisations are elements of context that influence the complexity of on-line meaning-making. An effect that would also tentatively evidence the presence of the self space, where such conceptualisations have been argued to occur.
In terms of the self-space analysis, two potentially influencing factors were acknowledged and codified. Initially, certain selected genres fell under the BNC category of written-to-be-spoken. This is an inescapable aspect of discourse nature. However, there exists substantial research that suggests the involved and interactive nature of spoken discourse, varies noticeably from the distant (from spontaneous conversation) and standardised nature of the written form (Biber 1988; Louwerse 2004). Thus, to account for this influence, the selected genres were codified as per Peter Koch's (1999) communicative continuum.
As per Figure 8, area A genres are phonic in medium and rich in communicative-immediate discourse features, such features being the dynamic, interactional, and socially influenced components of context. Area C genres are pre-prepared and graphic in medium but are spoken in communicatively immediate settings. The smaller space allocated to area C indicates that their genres are less subject to the dynamic, communicative-immediate discourse features. Areas D and B are genres that are rich in communicative distance, yet graphic and phonic in medium respectively.
Table 3. British National Corpus (1994) genre classifications
Medium I Medium II or interaction type Super-genre or function Genres or sub-genres
Spoken Dialogue Private Face-to-face conversations Phone calls
Public Classroom lessons Broadcast discussions Broadcast interviews Parliamentary debates Legal cross-examinations Business transactions
Monologue Unscripted Spontaneous commentaries Unscripted speeches Demonstrations Legal presentations
Scripted Broadcast talks Non-broadcast speeches
Mixed Broadcast news
Source: Lee 2002, 50.
The second potentially influencing factor is evidenced via David Lee's (2002) BNC genre assignment, illustrated in Table 3 above.
As per Table 3, the spoken genres selected for analysis fall under the dialogue and monologue interaction types. The variation of these interaction types may affect the extracted findings, as the static, single-interlocutor, and often passive nature of monologues, is markedly different from the dynamic, multi-interlocutor, and interactive nature of dialogues. As such, these interaction types were codified.
The analytical method (MPA) was then applied, with the relevant conceptual metaphor frequencies and types extracted and plotted against their genre, super genre, and interaction type. The target domain concordance datasets, on which the other-, and self-space analysis were conducted, are available via the links provided in the appendices.
Results Other space
This article now attempts to observe any effect that imputed other-identity conceptualisations have over CIT production. As per Table 4, the TIME target domain saw nine metaphor types extracted. Their instances are logged across each speaker level (S2 - 9). The linguistic items that triggered these extractions are included underneath their relevant metaphor type within the relevant tables. These linguistic items are also emboldened in the analytical examples, which feature their relevant index codes for analytical transparency.
The source domain MONEY was separated from RESOURCE due to the specific reference to time as a form of currency, such as spent their time noted in the example (1). RESOURCE, however, presents arguably vaguer reference to time as a form of resource, through waste of time, as exampled in (2). Accordingly, out of 381 linguistic instances of the word time, fourteen percent are metaphoric constructions.
(1) you know we spent so much time here it has been years (Index SMEG 932)
(2) and you're like well it's just a waste of my time really (Index SVVK 512)
Table 4. Metaphorical patterns manifesting TIME per number of speaker level
TIME IS... Number of speakers
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
MONEY spent time, investing time, putting time aside, strapped for time, not worth time, paying in time 2 1 3 2 1 1
AN ACTIVE AGENT MOVING THROUGH SPACE where the time went, time is running 2 1
A CONTAINER in time, out of time 2 1 3 3
A RESOURCE waste of time 4 6 5 4 2 2 1
A GIFT give it time 1
BELOW 1 1
on time
UP time is up 1
AN INSTRUMENT/WEAPON with time 1
ACONSTRUCTABLE PRODUCT make time 1
Total 9 11 9 10 3 5 1 4
Frequency 18% 22% 18% 20% 6% 10% 2% 13%
As per Table 4, the level where two speakers are present (S2), or two imputed others are required, shows time as a metaphor at eighteen percent frequency These are spread across four types of metaphor, TIME IS MONEY, AN ACTIVE AGENT MOVING THROUGH SPACE, A RESOURCE and A GIFT.
After the two-speaker level, there is relative stability in metaphoric presence as speakers incrementally increase. However, upon reaching the level with six speakers present, metaphoric frequency sharply declines. There is then a general fluctuation in frequency as speaker level continues to increase. Finally, at the level where nine speakers are present, metaphor frequency increases to a peak, relative to the latter half of the sample. Unique metaphor type exhibits a steady decline as number of speakers increase. Metaphor type declines from S2 (four types) to its lowest point at the eight-speaker level (one type). This trend is not followed at the nine-speaker level, where type occurrence increases to two. However, the limited dataset of S9 at thirty-one concordance lines, must be noted.
From these initial findings, it appears as though CIT remains relatively unaffected by the incremental addition of imputed other-identity conceptualisations (speakers). This is notable via the relative stability of metaphor frequency and type spread. However, it is apparent that the passing of five to six speakers introduces a fluctuation in both frequency and type. The latter half of the sample, where more imputed others are theoretically required, features the two lowest levels of metaphor frequency and type spread. This is also complemented by the level of increase in both regards at S9, where the number of imputed others required would be at the relative highest. The metaphor types of TIME IS MONEY and TIME IS A RESOURCE are the most frequent incrementally, and thus the most stable. In fact, these metaphors seem to mirror the initial trend outlined. Curiously, TIME IS MONEY remerges at the nine-speaker level, along with TIME IS A CONTAINER exampled in (3).
(3) will it be in time still for her then? (Index SR7T 276)
The application of MPA to the LIFE target domain saw the greatest occurrence of individual metaphor type (across the whole analysis) at eighteen. This also introduced new source domains such as LIFE IS (A) FIXED POINT IN SPACE(S) in (4) and LIFE IS A DRUG in (5). Accordingly, in the 288 linguistic instances of the word life, thirty-nine percent are metaphor.
(4) I said is he gonna go through life being one of these people (Index SU3C 1383)
(5) We just got to get high on life you know what I mean? (Index SUVQ 9307)
Number of speakers
LIFE IS. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A JOURNEY pace of life, phase of life, life began when 2 1 1
(A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE through life, back to life, do not want life in the way 3
A BUILDING if life was structured 1
A LOCKED OBJECT key to my life 1
A PLAY stage in life 2 1
A SPORTING GAME a shot true to life, lose a life, good at life 1 1 2 1
AN ACTIVE AGENT MOVING THROUGH SPACE life goes on 1
FOOD spice up your life 1
A DRUG high on life 1
FIRE snuff the life out 1 1
A CONTAINER in life, out of X's life 9 12 8 19 11 5
A RESOURCE wasting X's life 2 1
A SEPARATE ENTITY get on with life, X hates life, for life, X's life suffered 2 2 1 1 1
A GIFT get a life 1 1
A MALLEABLE MATERIAL making/makes/made life, life is in X's hands 1 2 3 1
MONEY spent/spending X's life 1 1 1 1 2
AN INSTRUMENT/WEAPON doing with X's life 1
AN ORGANISABLE COLLECTION OF THINGS mess of a life 1
Total 22 23 19 22 17 7 0 3
Frequency 44% 46% 38% 44% 34% 27% 0% 25%
As per Table 5, the two-speaker (S2) level has a forty-four percent frequency of life being metaphoric. A frequency that is spread across nine metaphor types. There is then a general decline in metaphoric frequency, as the number of speakers increase. However, an exception to this trend is at S9,
where there is a sharp increase in frequency. This nearly matches the frequency of the seven-speaker level. However, it must be noted that no data were available for the eight-speaker level, with S7 (twenty-six concordance lines) and S9 (twelve concordance lines) also featuring restricted datasets. In terms of metaphor type, there is a general decrease as speaker level increases from S2 to S9. The only significant diversion from this trend is at S8, but this may be due to the lack of available concordance lines.
These findings outline a trend that is more in-line with the predicted outcome. That is, CIT's meaning-making production is gradually affected by the incremental addition of a speaker, or addition of a conceptually imputed other. However, curious trends are beginning to emerge within the data. The five-speaker level seems to once more act as the initiation point from which there is a sharp decline in metaphor frequency and spread. Unlike TIME, this dataset shows no fluctuation. Yet this is with the caveat that no data were available for S8. The metaphor types that appear most frequent incrementally, are LIFE IS A SEPARATE ENTITY and LIFE IS A CONTAINER, with the latter source domain also stable in presence for TIME. In terms of S9, there is once again a re-emergence of certain metaphor types, those being LIFE IS A GIFT in (6) and LIFE IS MONEY in (7). The latter source domain, MONEY, was also stable in presence and then re-emergent in S9 within the TIME target domain sample.
(6) you do provide for us even give us life itself (Index SEGL 271)
(7) no she spends her life (Index SC2T 919)
The MIND target domain saw nine conceptual metaphor types extracted. THE MIND IS A SLATE in (8), and THE MIND IS A BOOK in (9), introduced new source domains to the analysis. Accordingly, out of 295 linguistic instances of mind, twenty-three percent occur as metaphor.
(8) that's a worry off your mind (Index SFNQ 1012)
(9) he obviously thought I could read his mind (Index SDVN 837)
Table 6. Metaphorical patterns manifesting MIND per number of speaker level
THE MIND IS... Number of speakers
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ACONSTRUCTABLE PRODUCT make up X's mind 1 1 1 1
A CONTAINER in mind, open mind, out of X's mind, ejected from X's mind 11 6 7 3 5 1 1
A SEPARATE ENTITY X's mind prepares, X's mind tells them, X's mind tickles all over, X's mind was awake, peace of mind 3 1 2 2 2
A BOOK read X's mind 1 1
A SLATE clear mind, mind goes blank 1 1
A SURFACE FOR THINGS TO REST off X's mind, on X's mind, weigh on X's mind 1 1 2
A SPACE IN WHICH THINGS MOVE crosses X's mind, something going through X's mind, something beginning to stir in X's mind, stayed in X's mind 1 2 1 1
(A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE springs to mind, comes to mind 1 1 1
AN ENGINE one-track mind, blewX's mind 2 1
Total 18 10 13 8 11 2 3 2
Frequency 36% 20% 26% 16% 22% 11% 25% 12%
As per Table 6, this target domain also features a general decrease in metaphor frequency as speakers increase. This trend however features notable fluctuation. A fluctuation that exhibits a repetitive pattern, that is, metaphor frequency increases and subsequently falls with the passing of each incremental speaker addition. Metaphor type features a more stable decrease from S2 to S9, with it remaining stable at its lowest figure (two) from the seven-speaker level onwards.
The findings of this final target domain analysis also reaffirm the predicted influence of increased speaker presence over CIT production. However, the limited datasets of S7 (seventeen concordance lines), S8 (twelve concordance lines) and S9 (sixteen concordance lines) must be noted. Akin to the TIME target domain, the latter-half of this sample features the two lowest points of metaphor frequency. Curiously, the latter-half peak occurs at S8, just before the level where other imputation would theoretically be at its most strenuous (S9). CONTAINER as a source domain once again shows most consistent presence, with the only absence at the nine-speaker level. However, S8 and S9 both show re-emergence of two metaphor types. That is, THE MIND IS A SLATE, and THE MIND IS (A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE at S8, and THE MIND IS A BOOK, and THE MIND IS AN ENGINE at S9.
Section discussion
As per Table 7, this summative section discussion commences by collating all the metaphoric frequencies per target domain, along with their combined average frequency. This holistic view allows the target domain specific findings outlined hitherto, to be complemented with any novel insights that the average may bring.
Table 7. Average target domain metaphoric presence per number of speaker level
Number of speakers
Target domain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TIME 18% 22% 18% 20% 6% 10% 2% 13%
LIFE 44% 46% 38% 44% 34% 27% 0% 25%
MIND 36% 20% 26% 16% 22% 11% 25% 12%
Average frequency 33% 29% 27% 26% 21% 16% 9% 17%
The collated data in Table 7 features the trends extracted hitherto. Initially, the trend of steady decrease in metaphoric frequency as speakers increase, is featured. In addition, the trend of the middle point (S5 or S6) acting as the initiation point for a sharp decline in metaphoric frequency, is also featured. Finally, the trend of the latter-half metaphoric frequency peak (eight-, or nine-speaker level), is featured.
The average frequency of these target domains presents a somewhat renewed, yet inclusive, perspective. The initial peak is represented at the two-speaker level (thirty-three percent). A steady decrease is then indicated, as speakers, or imputed other-identity conceptualisations, are incrementally added to the context. A decreasing percentage that operates within the scope of four to
one percent. However, the sharp mid-sample decline is represented as both S5 and S6 drop five percent in metaphoric frequency proceeding to their next speaker-level. S7 then shows a seven percent drop to S8. However, the lack of data for the LIFE target domain may obscure this figure. Nevertheless, the latter-half peak trend is somewhat reaffirmed with metaphor frequency increasing at the nine-speaker level.
Together, the target domain exclusive, and holistic consideration both seem to reaffirm the predicted effect of other-identity conceptualisations over CIT production. Initially, that metaphoric output is evidentially influenced by the increase of imputed other-identity conceptualisations (speakers). This is apparent via the decrease of metaphoric frequency as speakers are incrementally included. Furthermore, it has been evidenced that some form of cognitive load may constrain the efficiency of the meaning-making process. The lack of concordance lines available at the higher speaker levels may additionally suggest that such large group situations are rarer, and thus more complex/straining.
The trends outlined have also introduced unexpected findings that may provide further support to a cognitive load-type sensitivity within CIT. Initially, the early-peak trend lends support for the hitherto finding, that fewer imputed other-identities affect CIT production less. This, in-turn, allows greater efficiency in its meaning-making output. However, the sharp and sustained decrease from the five-/six-speaker level, with the subsequent eight-/nine-speaker increase, suggests nuanced CIT functionality. As such, this mid-drop at S5/S6 may be argued as a form of cognitive stalling, which thus adversely affects the efficiency of the conceptual meaning-making process. These speaker levels may then represent a cognitive-load threshold. The lowest point of this threshold being around S7/S8, as the data suggests. After this, a conceptual response-strategy could be argued as occurring. A notion supported by the data via the latter-half peak trend at S8/S9. That is, CIT's response to this apparent stalling event, may be a process of alleviating the high cognitive-load strain. This could be a process of conceptually condensing large speaker groups to a smaller conceptual entity, thus demanding fewer mappings, and leading to less strain on the system. This hypothetical strategy would both support the predicted effect of imputed others on CIT, but also the efficiency requirements of real-world conceptualisations, as previously outlined and evidenced. Nevertheless, tentative evidence that imputed other-identity conceptualisations affect CIT production, has been outlined. This in-turn tentatively evidences the presence of an other space.
Self space
This article now attempts to observe any effect that self-identity conceptualisations haver over CIT production. In order to effectively account for this self-identity conceptualisation influence, metaphor frequency and type must be considered and discussed per genre. The TIME target domain sample saw ten metaphor types extracted across all genres. Two of these source domains did not feature in the other-space analysis, that is, TIME IS (A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE in (10), and TIME IS SOMETHING MOVING TOWARDS YOU in (11).
(10) I think I will return from time to time (Index JSF 507)
(11) Research them, times going by (Index F8D 285)
Table 8. Metaphorical patterns manifesting TIME per genre, area, and interaction type
Genre
Area A
Area C
Monologue
Dialogue
TIME IS...
Sy —
OS 4—»
e
CD
O U
T3 CD
U
in
e
e o ■J3
as
e o
CD
Q
u CD CD
a
in T3 CD
CJ
in
e
cj (D (D
a
in T3 (D
—
CJ
m
e
CD
OS
c o
3 cj
OS CJ
T3
OS
o —
m
MONEY
spent their time, investing time, putting time aside, strapped for time, 1 1 2 1
not worth time, paying_in time
AN ACTIVE AGENT MOVING THROUGH SPACE 1
where the time went, time is running
(A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE 3 2
space of time, from time, in-between time
A CONTAINER c 1 1 1 1 o c. 6 8
in time, out of time
A RESOURCE A C. 9 2 7 A 4 9 2
waste of time
SOMETHING MOVING TOWARDS YOU 1 1 1 1 9 2
time is_going_tojly by
A GIFT A 9 2 9 2 9 2
_give it time, devote time
BELOW 1 1
on time
UP 1 1
time is up_
AN INSTRUMENT/WEAPON 1
with time
Total 14 10 6 16 16 16
Frequency, % 28 20 12 32 32 32
As per Table 8, the genre of unscripted commentary features a twenty-eight percent frequency of time being metaphoric, spread across four metaphor types. The demonstration genre sees comparatively lower metaphoric (twenty percent) frequency, but with a higher metaphor type spread at five. Unscripted speech, the final genre in Koch's area A (1999), features the lowest metaphoric frequency, and joint lowest metaphor type occurrence at four.
The monologue, area C genre of scripted speech sees the joint-highest metaphoric frequency, with a type spread of five. The final two genres, which both reside in the dialogue and area C categories, that is, parliament, and broadcast: discussion, show the same metaphoric frequency levels. However, parliament features five metaphor types, with broadcast: discussion featuring six.
Subsequently, the initial findings suggest that the varied self-identity conceptualisation requirements of each genre, possess some influence over CIT production. The most evident appears to be the high metaphoric frequencies and type spreads of the area C genres, compared to the area A genres. According to the initial data, the greatest effect that self-identity conceptualisations have on CIT production, is via the identity required within the unscripted speech genre. This is notable via its metaphor frequency and spread being the lowest of all the genres. This may be due to either the
monologue interaction type, or the area A nature of the discourse. However, unscripted commentary and demonstration share these categories, yet display notably higher metaphoric frequencies.
The LIFE target domain again appears to feature sizeable individual metaphor type occurrence, with fourteen extracted. Three of these source domains did not feature in the other-space analysis, that is, LIFE IS A SPORTING GAME in (12), LIFE IS BELOW in (13), and LIFE IS A VISIBLE PHENOMENON in (14).
(12)a better chance in this life (Index HDP 292)
(13) not on your life (Index HDT 653)
(14) don't sit back and see the life blood squeezed out of our union (Index HLU 424)
Table 9. Metaphorical patterns manifesting LIFE per genre, area, and interaction type
Genre
Area A
Area C
Monologue
Dialogue
LIFE IS.
Sy
—
03
4—»
e
CD s cj
s e CD CD u
o o a CD
cj ■J3 in CD
T3 03 T3 a 4—»
CD h CD in s
4-» Crt C 4—» T3 CD CD B
'C O 'C 4-» re
cj in B CJ in & ^
e CD e u re
3 Q 3 oo 0-
e o
3 u
03
u T3
03
o —
CQ
A JOURNEY
the pace of life, phase of life, life only began when, way of life
(A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE through life, back to life 2 2
A BUILDING 1
if life was structured, life in ruins 1
A SPORTING GAME
a shot true to life, loss to their life, lose a don't have the life skills life, better chance in life, they 2 1 1
FOOD
spice up your life, shelf life 1
A CONTAINER 3 6 14
in life, out of X's life 3 2
A RESOURCE 1 1 1 1
wasting X's life
BELOW 3 1 1 3 1 1
over the life
A SEPARATE ENTITY
get on with their life, X hates life, for life, X's life suffered, a necessity of life, leads a life, of life itself, took X's own life, quivers to life 3 3
A GIFT 1 1
get a life
A MALLEABLE MATERIAL making/makes/made life, life is in X's hands, extend X's life 1 2 1
MONEY spent/spending X's life 1
AN INSTRUMENT/WEAPON doing with X's life 1 1
A VISIBLE PHENOMENON see the life, visible life 2
Total 5 1 11 17 8 25
Frequency, % 71 50 22 34 73 50
As per Table 9, the highest metaphoric frequencies occur within the unscripted commentary, and parliament genres, with four and five metaphor types respectively. However, the limited datasets (seven and eleven concordance lines respectively) must be noted. Demonstration features an especially low sample size through two concordances, with only one being a metaphoric construction in (15) below.
(15)yetyou're happy with life as well. (Index FM3 325)
The dialogue genre of broadcast: discussion features half of its life instances as metaphor. Additionally, this genre features the highest occurrence of metaphor types at eight. Scripted speech presents the second lowest frequency of metaphor. However, these are spread across a comparatively high level of metaphor types (seven). Finally, unscripted speech again presents the lowest metaphoric frequency figure, yet notably features a comparatively high metaphor type spread at six.
Once more, there is seemingly significant variation per genre. However, half the dataset being from limited samples presents difficulty in attesting representative findings. The LIFE target domain does not present any such comparable disparity between area C and area A genres in terms of metaphoric frequency. However, there is a greater spread of metaphor type in area C, comparable to area A. The monologue interaction type possesses the genres with the lowest levels of metaphoric frequency, via scripted speech and unscripted speech. Unscripted speech again suggests a genre where self-identity conceptualisations are the most demanding on CIT production. Lastly, the dialogue, area C genre of broadcast: discussion presents the highest spread of metaphor type so far (eight), with examples in (16), (17) and (18). Nevertheless, a trend is emerging for the dialogue genres, in that their relevant identities are seemingly less strenuous (comparably) for CIT.
(16) you get these big moments in the life of the church (Index KRE 237)
(17) I thinkyou've just got to live the way of life asyou find it. (Index KRG 1230)
(18) But just as the housing market quivers to life. (Index K6B 377)
Finally, as per Table 10, the MIND target domain saw seven metaphor types extracted. No new source domains featured in comparison to MIND's other-space analysis.
Table 10. Metaphorical patterns manifesting MIND per genre, area, and interaction type
Genre
Area A Area C
Monologue Dialogue
THE MIND IS. Unscripted commentary Demonstration Unscripted speech Scripted speech Parliament Broadcast: discussion
ACONSTRUCTABLE PRODUCT
make up X's mind
A CONTAINER in mind, open mind, out of X's mind, ejected from X's mind 1 2 22 13 13 18
A SEPARATE ENTITY felt X's mind, X's mind prepares, X's mind tells them, X's mind was awake, mind wanders, attitude of mind, losing their mind 3 2 2
A SLATE clear mind, mind goes blank 1
A SURFACE FOR THINGS TO REST off X's mind, on X's mind, weigh on X's mind 1
A SPACE IN WHICH THINGS MOVE crosses X's mind, something going through X's mind, something beginning to stir in X's mind, stayed in X's mind 1 1
(A) FIXED POINT(S) IN SPACE springs to mind, comes to mind 1 1 2 1
Total 1 3 27 18 19 24
Frequency, % 14 43 54 62 100 48
This dataset features some limited genre concordance-sets via, unscripted commentary (seven concordance lines), demonstration (seven concordances lines, scripted speech (twenty-nine total concordance lines) and parliament (nineteen concordance lines). The lowest metaphoric frequency and type is in unscripted commentary. However, this may be due to the limited datasets as noted. Notably, the unscripted speech genre presents its highest metaphoric frequency yet, and the joint highest metaphor type spread at five, exampled through (19) to (23) below.
(19) you've got to make up your mind (Index G4G 241)
(20) And that is in your mind (Index FM0 398)
(21) This is just one that's come to mind (Index K6Y 1362)
(22) because it's the last thing on your mind (Index KS6 527)
(23) It just crossed my mind (Index HYU 597)
Demonstration and broadcast: discussion share similar levels of metaphoric frequency, with the former featuring a lower metaphor type spread at two, in comparison to the latter's four. However,
demonstration's limited dataset must be noted. Scripted speech shows the second highest level of mind metaphoric frequency, spread across four metaphor types. Finally, it was found in the case of parliament, that every instance of mind was presented as metaphoric, with a joint highest spread at five.
This final target domain remains consistent in showing that varying self-identity conceptualisations affect CIT production. The most striking data feature is that of parliament's one-hundred percent metaphoric frequency when referring to mind. This suggests CIT production to be completely unaffected, or even enhanced by the self-identity conceptualisations required. Additionally, the area C genres once more present overall higher metaphoric frequencies and spread, comparable to area A. However, the unscripted speech genre features frequency and type levels that are not consistent with the trends observed thus far.
Section discussion
As per Table 11, the summative section discussion once again begins with a holistic view of the data analysed.
Table 11. Average target domain metaphoric presence per genre, area, and interaction type, %_
Genre
Area A Area C
Monologue Dialogue
Target domain Unscripted commentary Demonstration Unscripted speech Scripted speech Parliament Broadcast: discussion
TIME 28 20 12 32 32 32
LIFE 71 50 22 34 73 50
MIND 11 43 54 62 100 48
Average frequency 36 37 29 42 68 43
In terms of the established trends, the table represents the trend of area C genres possessing higher metaphoric frequencies than area A. That is, scripted speech, parliament, and broadcast: discussion, possessing higher averages. Additionally, the monologue interaction type remains the category where metaphor is the least common, with unscripted speech being the overall lowest. However, the average once again facilitates renewed perspective. The dialogue genres of parliament, and broadcast: discussion possess the highest metaphoric frequencies. A further insight is the strikingly similar levels of metaphoric frequency in both the unscripted commentary, and demonstration genres. Finally, the parliament genre consistently features the highest levels of metaphoric frequency.
Overall, the target domain exclusive, and holistic consideration both seem to thus reaffirm the predicted effect of self-identity conceptualisations over CIT production. That is, CIT production is
evidentially affected by the varying self-identity conceptualisations of each genre. However, the variation presented may also imply further CIT intricacies. Initially, the area C genres featuring the highest metaphoric frequencies and spread, may be argued as in-line with Koch's (1999) assertion of the category being communicatively distant. This may be argued because, although some self-identity conceptualisations occur within spoken scenarios, most identity elements are likely to have been pre-constructed, given the pre-preparedness of area C genres. Therefore, these genres are less demanding on CIT performance in-the-moment, leaving CIT more resource to produce higher levels of metaphoric production. This is particularly observable via the direct comparison between scripted speech (forty-two percent), and its area A counterpart of unscripted speech (twenty-nine percent), with the key difference being the spontaneity and immediacy of language production.
The metaphor frequency figure of the unscripted speech genre, the lowest of the sample, suggests the self-identity conceptualisations therein to be the most cognitively taxing. This could be noted as area A influence. However, unscripted commentary and demonstration are in the same area, yet possess higher levels of metaphoric frequencies. This oddity may be accounted for via a reconsideration of the latter genres. Initially, the demonstration genre rests within business event discourse, where self-interest is prioritised. However, the identity required within the demonstration process may be argued as more descriptive, due to the performative and repetitive processes associated with giving demonstrations. Therefore, some area C pre-preparedness, and thus some conceptual alleviation, may be inferred. In terms of unscripted commentary however, the need to entertain and inform has been outlined. This should subsequently feature levels akin to the unscripted speech genre. However, after review of the unscripted commentary data collation within the BNC, it was found that the timespan of this collation ranges from 1985 to 1993. It may then be argued that the entertainment-identity turn of the genre, as posited by Rada (1996), had not yet fully taken hold when the data was collected. As such, a descriptive nature may then be tentatively ascribed to both the identities within both these genres. This may then explain the comparably higher (and similar) levels of metaphoric output, due to less emphasis on self-identity conceptualisation than required in the unscripted speech genre. Consequently, the strenuous nature of area A, combined with Scollon's (2008) competitive yet non-coercive identity, may contribute to the unscripted speech genre being the most cognitively demanding in terms of self-identity conceptualisations.
Finally, the dialogue genres feature the highest metaphoric frequencies. This may be due to the argued area C pre-preparedness. However, it may be that dialogue interactions enhance CIT production. This is notable via the high metaphoric frequencies of parliament. An oddity that could also infer the role of proficiency within self-identity conceptualisation, and thus CIT production. As example. parliamentary politicians are often argued as highly proficient speakers, and as such, may be able to produce metaphor more efficiently regardless of any strenuous self-identity conceptualisation demands. It may also be that Bucholtz and Hall's (2010) concept of social positioning is in action, that is, via pre-constructed group identity (or party affiliation) enactment within the parliamentary discourse. Therefore, akin to Koch's (1999) area C, such pre-preparedness may be less demanding on CIT, and thus facilitate higher levels of metaphoric output. Nevertheless, tentative evidence that self-identity conceptualisations affect CIT production, has been outlined. This in-turn tentatively evidences the presence of a self space.
Conclusion
This article has sought to sufficiently represent the contextual role within conceptual integration. A role that has been outlined as dynamic, interaction-relative, and socially subjective. Socio-cognitive focused literature has thus been utilised to argue that the identity conceptualisations of
the self, and other facilitate this dynamic role of context. A revised CIT framework has then been proposed that centres around these identity conceptualisations via the inclusion of a self space and an other space. As such, this framework is argued and exampled as more adequate in representing context than Fauconnier and Turner's (1998) traditional CIT. A corpus linguistic methodology, utilising Stefanowitsch's (2006) metaphoric pattern analysis, has been applied on data extracted from the British National Corpus (1994) and the Spoken British National Corpus (2014). This analysis has provided some initial tentative evidence that self-, and other-identity conceptualisations possess some influence over CIT production. Consequently, the novel context mental spaces, and thus the legitimacy of the proposed revision, has also been evidenced. The data extracted has also allowed discussion on possible CIT functional processes/strategies.
The implementation of this revised CIT permits the detailed and illustrative account of how context influences and embeds itself into meaning production. The self space allows the visualisation and consideration of how an individual may construct self-identity in relation to, a local ongoing discourse event, personal wants/beliefs, and societal value systems. The other space allows the visualisation and consideration of how that individual may then construct other-identities, in relation to imputed wants/beliefs and societal value systems, as filtered through their own subjective lens. The resultant conceptual-contextual product of this mutually co-constitutive process may then also be visualised. This more nuanced integration visualisation has the potential to build upon Fauconnier and Turner's (1998) blend-working processes, with a more detailed and active contextual-conceptual account. Nevertheless, this article contributes to the socio-cognitive discipline movement, in that it enables the bridging of the contextual and conceptual role in cognition and language production.
However, as adequate as this contextual revision appears to be, there are some limitations to this piece. Initially, although the data is seemingly supportive, it is important to note that correlation is not causation. Thus, some caution is advised in observing the findings. Furthermore, the metaphors within this work have been extracted based on this researcher's interpretation and intuition. As such, this data, and the resultant findings, may benefit by being subjected to inter-rater reliability measures. Moreover, the influences of genre-identity, proficiency, and novel/conventional metaphor, all need to be considered in greater detail in order to attest a more substantial CIT revision. Finally, as Fauconnier and Turner (1998) outline, metaphor is merely a subset range of phenomena available to CIT. Consequently, this proposed piece is preliminary, and further work is required to investigate more comprehensively the repertoire of phenomena available to CIT.
Appendices
Number of Speaker - time concordance dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1vuib3GhDAQz74ZLnNMDLABtgTXGiVFikPE1kufphfv8/edit?usp=sharing Number of Speaker - life concordances dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1LGDVqlrZokIC5HBmnTbERQICk4vTCiR7xUnrB0N-SnQ/edit?usp=sharing Number of Speaker - mind concordance dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1dcKDnTCewf56j7M76wY1nL8xmaCZiNpkReGD5g4sj1U/edit?usp=sharing Genre - time concordance dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RPZoUsd5hulrX3 jB9-FstWpaFGdr2XfQ6gubylLaUQ/edit?usp=sharing Genre - life concordance dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1npIXYYDFBUp5FKxw89Wx9j-nqS8DFOMlLkIjUD-v1R8/edit?usp=sharing Genre - mind concordance dataset
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1W2ubjeYVAPV80Tqk2jPQztUNb5lIKRdFZLmKGFKn9to/edit?usp=sharing
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