CC BY
0
Ukrainian Journal of Ecology
Ukrainian Journal ofEcology, 2023, 13(4), 28-33, doi: 10.15421/2023_441_
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Review on pesticides role in agriculture, applications, safety
and precautions in Ethiopia
S. Regassa1*, T. Selvaraj2, A. Abera2
1 Department of Plant Pathology, Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural
Research, Asella, Oromiya, Ethiopia
2Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, Ambo University, Oromiya,
Ambo, Ethiopia Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected] Received: 05 April, 2023; Manuscript No: UJE-23-100821; Editor assigned: 07 April, 2023, PreQC No: P-100821; Reviewed: 18 April, 2023, QC No: Q-100821; Revised: 24 April, 2023, Manuscript No: R-100821;
Published: 29 April, 2023
Pesticides are toxic by design;they are biocides, designed to kill, reduce or repel insects, weeds, rodents, fungi or other organisms that can threaten public health and the economy. Pesticides have numerous beneficial effects, these include crop protection, preservation of food and prevention of vector-borne diseases. One issue of particular importance is the use of pesticides on farms, which has a significant negative impact on farmers' health. Pesticide exposure can have chronic and acute impacts on human health. Long-term, low-dose exposure to pesticides is increasingly linked to human health effects such as immune-suppression, hormone disruption, diminished intelligence, reproductive abnormalities and cancer. Several studies have attempted to value the effect of pesticide exposure on human health. A recent study estimated that the cost of the public health impact of pesticide use estimated to around US$ 1140 million per year. On the Other hand; Lack of awareness, illiteracy of the majority of the farmers, inadequate training, lack of appropriate and timely information about the proper use and management of pesticides, inappropriate use of personal protective equipment, Weak law enforcement,inadequate implementation of the issued regulations, weak monitoring or followup activities to control pesticide usage and disposal problems results to contamination of the different environmental compartments (water, air, soil, food and biota), which in turn leads to health problems for human and other nontarget organisms in the environment. Therefore, in addition to awareness creation, applicable IPM and pesticides use strategy especially in developing countries including Ethiopia is mandatory to save life. Keywords: Pesticides, Use, Human health, Environment.
Introduction
Pesticides refers to any chemical or mixture of substances that can be intended for preventing, destroying, attracting,repelling or controlling or mutilate any pest such as insects, nematodes, weeds, disease pathogens and vectors during the production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of food, agricultural commodities or animal feeds (EPA, 2009). Pesticides includes; fungicides, bactericides, Viricides, nematicides, insecticides, herbicides, rodenticide, etc., (Bakshi, et al., 2020). Pesticides are generally contains chemical solvents, solid carriers, emulsifiers, wetting agents, stabilizers and adjustment, which confer the intended biological activity of the products used in agriculture, in Public health work, in wildlife conservation and in and around the household and public areas (Nuruzzaman, et al., 2016).
Since the 1940s, pesticides have been used intensively in agriculture across the globe to control variety of pests and diseases affecting crops (Guedes, et al., 2016). Pests and diseases are the drivers that encourage the application of pesticides in agricultural production because without the application of pesticides, the loss of fruits, vegetables and cereals from pest injury would reach
78%, 54% and 32% respectively (Ranga, et al., 2015). Therefore, pesticides use is considered an indispensable practice for the production of an adequate food supply on limited areas of crop land for increasing world population (Porkka, et al., 2016). Pesticides that are in use today belongs to Chlorinated, Hydrocarbons, Organophosphate, Carbonate, synthetic pyrethroids and zinc compounds, which have carcinogenic effects on human health (Pena, et al., 2021). Organo chlorine insecticides are banned for agricultural and domestic use in most of the developed countries, but they are still in use in developing countries including Ethiopia (Ejersa, 2011; Sharma, et al., 2012).
Modern agriculture is characterized by widespread utilization of pesticides in an attempt to prevent crop losses from insect pests and diseases. Despite the potential economic benefits (increased yields and crop protection) associated with Pesticide use,related hazards are still a concern (Tyagi, et al., 2015). Pesticide over use during crop protection against pests has become a common feature. Contemporary agriculture. This has created increasing concerns about pesticide related adverse effects on human health and the environment (Meka and Dubiwak, 2021). In many developing countries,most pesticides are associated with adverse effects on human health and environment due to inappropriate use and handling of pesticides by inadequately trained farm workers (Jallow et al., 2017). Prior studies have reported unsafe pesticide handling behavior in some countries including Ethiopia (Mengistie, et al., 2016). These consists of overdose, improper storage,hazardous disposal and failure to wear protective gears (Jin, et al., 2014). Most of the pesticides are broad spectrum and kill both the target and non-target organisms. Majority of the farmers are unaware of pesticide types, level of poisoning, safety precautions and potential hazards on health and environment (Mokhele, 2011). Pesticide pollution not only affects short-run health effects but can also result in chronic diseases such as cancer. Pesticides also cause deaths of domestic animals,loss of natural pests, increase pesticide resistance,crop losses, bird and fishery losses and surface and sub-surface water contamination. Therefore, the cost of pesticide pollution for the society is likely to be significantly higher than the cost estimated here. The low level of awareness on pesticides and health costs may lead to sub-optimal decision-making on the use of pesticides (Ajayi, 2000). Hence, this review mainly focused up on pesticides applications role in agriculture,safe use and precautions in general and Ethiopia in particular.
Objective
Pesticides role in agriculture, applications, safety and precautions reviewed and observed using preliminary survey in West Shewa (Nega File) and Arsi highlands (kulumsa), Ethiopia.
Materials and Methods Description of the study area
This study was conducted from June to August 2021 at Nega File (West Shewa, Ethiopia) and Kulumsa (Arsi, South Eastern Ethiopia) kebeles. The study area were selected mainly due to their potential in cereal crops (mainly wheat, and barley) production and used pesticide intensively among the producers.
Method of the study
A community based cross-sectional study was conducted to assess pesticide use and related factors among the rural community of Nega File (West Shewa, Ethiopia) and Kulumsa (Arsi, South Eastern Ethiopia) kebeles and the sample size determination was computed using single population proportion formula considering the following assumption: 95% level of confidence, margin of error (5%), prevalence of safe utilization of pesticide 63.2%, design effect of 1.5 and non-response rate of 10%. The final sample size was 200 and random sample was used.
Sampling technique
4 sub kebeles/zone were selected from 2 rural kebeles and the calculated sample size was proportionally allocated to the selected kebeles. Finally the study house holds were selected using the systematic sampling technique with K-intervals.
Data collection
The data was collected by interview using structured questionnaires developed by referring different studies carried out in Chit wan, Nepal and Ethiopia. Which comprised questions about Socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge about pesticide, handling, storage, spray, disposal of residue practice. Data quality was assured by proper designing of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was assessed for its clarity, logical flow, length and completeness and the necessary amendment was made.
Data analysis
Epi-Data Version 4.6 and SPSS Version 25.0 was used for data entry and analysis respectively. Descriptive and analytical statistics were employed. Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages were used. Text, tables and graphs were used to display the findings. Multi co linearity of the independent variables was checked using variance inflation factor (VIF) which was <1.08. The model fitness was checked using the Hosmer Leme show test that yield a P-value of 0.906, good fit and bi variate logistic regression was used to determine the association between dependent and independent variable. The variables with P-value less than 0.25 were considered as a candidate for multi variable logistic regression analysis to test the factors associated with safe utilization of pesticide practice. A P-value of less than 5% was considered to determine statistical significance.
Results and Discussion Socio demographic characteristics
A total of 200 participants (aged 18-78 years, with the mean (± SD) age of 43.8 (± 11.53) were interviewed which gives 96.0% response rate. The majority of the participants were 174 (87%) male and (94.5%) were married. About 156 (87%) had no formal education and only 44 (22%) of participants had secondary and above level of education. Regarding the monthly income and land property of the households, 61 (70%) earn below 2000 ETB and 139 (69%) had below 1.5-hectare farm land size.
Knowledge about safe pesticide use
Present study finding showed that, the majority of study participants 181 (91%) had access to information about safe pesticide use, among this the main sources of the information were, 6 (3%) agricultural worker (developmental agent) and 35 (18%) farmer union. The majority 166 (83%) knows pesticide affect the health of humans, 156 (78%) affect the environment and 76 (38%) knows some pesticide are banned or restricted for use. The study participants who knew any (hat, gloves, goggles, boots, and face mask) personal protective equipment (PPE) were 164 (82%). While, only 112 (56%) had the experience of reading the label on the pesticide container and 114 (20.8%) ever had training on the safe utilization practice of pesticides.
As shown in the Fig. 1 below, the overall level of the knowledge of selected household toward the safe utilization practice of the pesticides was 109 (54%),had good knowledge than 91 (46%).
i
■ good «poor
Fig. 1. The overall level of the knowledge of selected households toward safe utilization pesticide. Safe pesticide use practice
All of the study participants had experience with utilization of the pesticides. Nearly half of them 109 (54.5%) were used PPE before spraying mainly 91 (46%) hats, 76 (38%) face masks, and 33 (17%) gloves only were used.
The majority of the participants at kulumsa 70 (35%) keep their work clothes at home and 30 (15%) wash them together with other personal clothes. At Nega File study area Majority reports that, 68 (34%) were took shower after work with mean 69 (34%) wash with soap and water after pesticide application. Regarding the methods of spraying used, majority 198 (99%) used Knapsack. Nearly one third 2 (1%) of the farmers were involved solely in handling inorganic/chemical (mixing, spraying, and disposal) of pesticides with their bare hands. More than half of the 156 (78%) of the farmers were mixed pesticides at home and around drinking water/streams.
The bi variate logistic regression analysis showed that demographics characteristics like gender, age, education status, household monthly income, years of pesticide use, source of pesticide and farmland size had P-value <0.25 and they were candidate for multivariate logistic regression. After controlling Con founder in the multi variable analysis; education status, years of pesticide use, and source of pesticide, were remained an association with the safe utilization practice of pesticide (Table 1).
Table 1. Bi variable and multi variable logistic regression mean analysis among the study area.
Safe utilization of pesticide COR 95% Cl AOR 95% Cl P-value
Gender Yes% No%
Female 26 (13) 174 (87) 1 1
Male 174 (87) 26(13) 1.855 (0.732, 4.700) 1.724 (0.526, 5.648) 0.121
Age
< 35 20 (10) 6 (3) 1.855 (0.732, 4.700) 1.724 (0.526, 5.648) 0.12
>36 180 (90) 4 (2) 1 1
Education status
No formal education 31 (16) 169 (85) 1 1
Primary (1-8) 136 (68) 21 (11) 6.389 (4.032, 10.124) 5.605 (3.309, 9.495) <.001
Secondary and above 33 (17) 10 (5) 13.268 (7.387, 23.832) 9.847 (5.007, 19.368) <.001
Household monthly income
< 1000 ETB 108 (54) 92(46) 1.575 (0.982, 2.526) 1.623 (0.886, 2.970) 0.117
1001-2575 ETB 69 (36) 131 (70) 1.244 (0.766, 2.021) 1.416 (0.759, 2.642) 0.114
>2575 ETB 23 (12) 177 (89) 1 1
Years of pesticide use
< 5y 20 (10) 180 (90) 1 1
6-10y 80 (40) 120 (60) 1.872 (1.222, 2.870) 1.913 (1.166, 3.141) 0.01
>10y 100 (50) 100 (50) 9.349 (5.345, 16.353) 6.743 (3.569, 12.738) <.001
Source of pesticide
Local market 31 (16) 153 (76.5) 1 1
Nearby any shop 123 (61.5) 172 (36) 1.787 (1.139, 2.804) 2.312 (1.360, 3.930) 0.002
Agricultural office 38 (19) 175 (87.5) 9.346 (5.203, 16.788) 6.996 (3.585, 13.653)
This Study (community based cross-sectional study) revealed that the prevalence safe utilization practice of pesticides was 192 (96%). Only 164 (82%) used any PPE before spraying pesticides, this may be due to the level of educational background of the farmers and the poor awareness creation in the locality. The finding is in-line with the study conducted in Pakistan, which revealed that more than half of the cotton workers surveyed did not use any protective measure during cotton picking, while only 22.3% used a muffler/scarf/cloth for covering their face and 10.8% used gloves. Based on this study finding, safe practice of pesticide and using PPE before spraying and mix pesticides at home was low. Therefore, any residue remaining in or on food can pose danger to humans and may cause side effects, as a result my preliminary survey showed that all the selected farmers in West Shewa and Arsi highlands showed highly significant.
Conclusion and Recommendation
In developing countries (including Ethiopia), as agricultural production intensified; pesticide utilization becomes more widespread and the users are extremely exposed to these pesticides due to lack of pesticide registration scheme,importing highly toxic pesticides, inappropriate use of pesticides, disposal problems, Weak law enforcement and no national plan for pesticide residue. Injudicious and indiscriminate use of pesticides and presence of pesticide residues in food, fruits,vegetables and environment is a matter of grave concerns. Banned and highly hazardous pesticides have been used without any precautionary measures. Exposure of farm families to pesticides and intake of pesticides by consumers are a major health threat. Biotic and abiotic systems have been affected entirely. The new focus on "safer pesticide use" promotes the principle that all options for pest management should be considered, tested and integrated into strategies for sustainable and environmentally sound crop production. A longer-term view of production and pest prevention is favored over the short-term, reactive view. The strategy that provides farmers with the most choices is integrated pest Management (IPM).
The study findings provide information about factors that affect safe use practice of pesticides by the farmers. Farmer's level of education, experience of utilization of pesticide and the place of pesticide bought were associated with safe practice of pesticide use significantly. Implementation of a continuous training program of safe practice of pesticide use to the local farmers/producers, especially for health and agricultural sectors recommended.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in giving me this learning opportunity and Ambo University for covering tuition fees.
References
Adamu, A., Abebe, W. (2022). Practices and challenges of wheat producer farmers on safe pesticide use in Basoliben district, East Gojjam zone, Ethiopia. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 21:43-50. Ajayi, O.O. (2000). Pesticide use practices, productivity and farmers' health.
Alemu, T., Mengistu, A. (2019). Impacts of climate change on food security in Ethiopia: adaptation and mitigation options: a review. Climate Change-Resilient Agriculture and Agroforestry: Ecosystem Services and Sustainability, pp: 397-412. Al-Waili, N., Salom, K., Al-Ghamdi, A., Ansari, M.J. (2012). Antibiotic, pesticide, and microbial contaminants of honey: human health hazards. The Scientific World Journal.
Andersen, H.R., Schmidt, I.M., Grandjean, P., Jensen, T.K., Budtz-Jorgensen, E., Kjœrstad, M.B., Main, K.M. (2008). Impaired reproductive development in sons of women occupationally exposed to pesticides during pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116:566-572.
Andresen, S., Rosendal, K. (2009). The role of the United Nations environment programme in the coordination of multilateral environmental agreements. International Organizations in Global Environmental Governance, 17:133.
Bakshi, P., Bali, S., Kaur, P., Khajuria, A., Khanna, K., Mir, B.A., Bhardwaj, R. (2020). Pesticide toxicity amelioration in plants by plant hormones. Pesticides in Crop Production: Physiological and Biochemical Action, pp:233-258.
Bekele, D., Belyhun, Y., Petros, B., Deressa, W. (2012). Assessment of the effect of insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying for malaria control in three rural kebeles of Adami Tulu District, South Central Ethiopia. Malaria Journal, 11:1-9. Bonmatin, J.M., Giorio, C., Girolami, V., Goulson, D., Kreutzweiser, D.P., Krupke, C., Tapparo, A. (2015). Environmental fate and exposure; neonicotinoids and fipronil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22:35-67. Buccini, J. (2004). The global pursuit of the sound management of chemicals. World Bank, pp:1-67.
Chinasho, A. (2015). Review on community based municipal solid waste management and its implication for climate change mitigation. American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 6:41-46.
Ejersa, G.G. (2011). Contributions of vegetable production to the household food security: The case of Kebeles surrounding Holeta Town.
Scialabba, N. (2000). Factors influencing organic agriculture policies with a focus on developing countries. In IFOAM 2000 Scientific Conference, Basel, Switzerland, pp:28-31.
Fikadu, Z. (2020). Pesticides use, practice and its effect on honeybee in Ethiopia: A review. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 40:473-481.
Citation:
Regassa, S., Selvaraj, T., Abera, A. (2023). Review on pesticides role in agriculture, applications, safety and precautions in Ethiopia. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology. 13: 28-33.
| (ct)E^^^H This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 40 License
