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Copyright © 2020 by Academic Publishing House Researcher s.r.o.
" * I
Published in the Slovak Republic Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie) Has been issued since 2005 ISSN 1994-4160 E-ISSN 1994-4195 2020, 60(3): 454-464
DOI: 10.13187/me.2020.3.454 www.ejournal53.com
Representation of Pak-Military Efforts in War on Terror in New York Times and Washington Post
Zahra Maqsood a, Humera Sharif a , *, Hamedi Mohd Adnan b
a Department of English Language and Literature, University of Lahore, Pakistan b Department of Media and Communication Studies, University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
This research was a critical study of the discourse used in the American newspapers regarding opinion about Pakistan military efforts in war on terror. So, the purpose of this study was to highlight the representation of Pak military in the discourse. The Qualitative method was engaged to assess the data of the selected content. The data have been collected by simple random sampling from The Washington Post and The New York Times and analyzed by N. Fairclough's 3D model. Moreover, relevant linguistic tool from the Descriptive stage (1st dimension) were selected. For this, the study used M.K. Hallida/s model of Functional Language to find the relevant linguistic tool to analyze the media discourse. Keeping in focus the main objectives of the study, it only focused on the ideational function of language. The findings revealed that it was through transitivity process and through deliberate choice of lexical material to keep the acts of terrorism active and Pak Military passive in the this regard. The transitivity process showed that Pakistan military role was unsatisfied in its handling of militancy from its soil. The data also turned out to be repeatedly representing particular images of reality through the ideational function of language. Pakistan military administration was taken as submissive in eradicating Islamic fundamentalist. It also revealed the hidden agenda behind such representation that was distorting the image of Islam representing it as promoting militants' group in the name of religion.
Keywords: CDA, contemporary media discourse, representation, war on terror, pak military.
1. Introduction
The study focused on the discourse published in the New York Times and Washington Post to explore how these newspapers discussed Pakistan army in the backdrop of its efforts in curbing terrorism from its soil. Through the linguistic forms the media do not just report but they make us see the world with their perspective (Maroney, Gross, 2016). This is contrary to their occupational norms which entail "reporting something called 'news' without commenting on it, slanting it, or shaping its formulation in any way" (Weeks, Lane, 2020). Thus, this study was to look into how print media manipulated the language through lexical choices and transitivity process characterizing certain relations and images despite retaining the notion of "free press".
Certain linguistic features such as meanings and forms of discourse influence more than others (Garzone, 2018). Such as topics of discourse represent what is considered important and it
* Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Sharif)
also effects to control the appearance of certain other aspects that are important to highlight (Waller, 2017). That is why,in the case of this study, the content along with headlines from the mentioned newspapers have been taken.
In this study, CDA helped in revealing how the textual features in this media discourse are employed to represent the Pakistan military in a certain way. With the help of CDA the research has investigate how intentionally employed linguistic features embody the situational context according to one's own perspective. The context features (such as properties of language users of powerful groups) influence the ways members of dominated groups (readers) define the social event in "preferred context models (Besana et al., 2019). Succinctly, the study aimed at highlighting the certain representations which the two American newspapers explicitly or implicitly build to make the audience or masses visualize the reality about Pakistan military efforts in war on terror. The results of the study may help the students of applied linguistics know the representation of reality through textual material employing the transitivity process. So, the study has been centered upon the following research questions.
1. How do certain lexical choices perform to trigger preferred portray of Pak military efforts in war on terror?
2. How does the language function ideationally to unveil the contrived image of Pak military efforts in the newspapers of US?
2. Materials and methods
Research Methodology. The qualitative method was, predominantly, taken owing to the interpretive nature of the study and because it was an insight into contextual conditions. Moreover, CDA itself studied discourse qualitatively.
Data Type and Collection. The data obtained for this study were the type of secondary data as it consisted of the headlines and their content in (American) newspapers. To collect the data, the researchers personally visited the official websites of the mentioned newspapers and searched the relevant headlines printed in the year 2014. This year has been selected because the debate on the role of Pak- Military efforts in war on terror was hot during the year. The way researchers collected the sample of the data from the relevant content was the simple random sampling. In simple random sampling, every object of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. Since the researchers were to do the CDA of the American newspapers on a certain issue so they selected those headlines which were relevant to the topic and can be said to be the representative.
Theoretical Framework. In this study the researchers used N. Fairclough's model (Fairclough, 2003) of critical discourse analysis (CDA) as the theoretical framework of the study (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Firclough's 3D model
In N. Fairclough Model (Fairclough, 2003), The Discourse Practice (second dimension of the model) helped in interpretation of the text and Social Practice (3rd Dimension) helped in relating the role of language in the process of social constructions in the social context. The social practice was analyzed in terms of social events and time and place relation. Social events were further analyzed distinguishing the representation of Pak military as specific to Pakistan or generic around the globe, as personal or impersonal, inclusive or exclusive, playing as active agents or given the passive role. Moreover, relevant linguistic tool from the Descriptive stage (1st dimension) were selected. For this, the study used M.K. Hallida/s (Halliday, 1997) model of Functional Language to find the relevant linguistic tool to analyze the media discourse. Keeping in focus the main
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objectives of the study, it only focused on the ideational function of language. N. Fairclough (Fairclough, 2018) supports M. K. Halliday (Halliday, 1997) that ideational function of language has one to one relation with the representation of the social processes. M.K. Halliday (Halliday, 1997) explains various linguistic tools to study how language functions ideationally in different contexts. For this study, transitivity processes have been found the most relevant in relation to the objectives of the study. Moreover, context interpretation is one significant element of representation and hence, ideational function is central to MR (Dijk, 2018). The 'context' also embeds in social practice as social context. Succinctly, the representation of Pak military efforts in U.S. media discourse was investigated by focusing on the context representation in terms of social world, material world and physical world.
3. Discussion
Media discourse is not a simple text which can be comprehended easily as seeming rather simple text contains very intricate meanings especially in the matter of print media i.e newspapers. The examination of news text has been a chief practice in area of discourse analysis as many researchers have analyzed newspaper reports in order to figure out the worth of their functions in increasing cultural associations (Kubey, 2018). Newspaper editors portray social events in their own ideological outline and consequently it can be derived that news are subjective and they cannot be unbiased. "The editor and his reporters on the one hand and their audience constitute an ideological empire. The newspaper subjects all newsworthy events that constantly come up in social life to rigorous linguistic manipulation to make them suit the ideological expectation of the audience" (weeks, Lane, 2020).
Mass media fabricates ideology through pictures, symbols and expression as they are shown in the newspaper (Feezell, 2018). Journalists who have total control of newspaper articles, therefore, have the muscle to use the type to intervene a range of ideologies, thereby influencing the psyche of their readers as they wish (Crawford, Finn, 2015). This is reflected in the symbolic organization of newspaper articles: Headlines, lead and body. The newspapers to be used as sample would With such dissident study, critical discourse analysts takes explicit position, and thus want to understand, expose and ultimately to oppose social or political inequality
Studying media representation involves interpreting the creation of new forms of understanding reality. This perception differs from more traditional notions of studying media representation as "false" or "misrepresentation" of some reality or experience (Besana et al., 2019). This concept of "Misrepresentation" supposes that there is 'true' or 'fixed' sense linked with certain outside reality against which media content can be matched up to as either 'true' or 'fixed' to that 'reality'.
A headline is "a unique type of text that consists of a array of functions that purposely speak of its shape, content, and structure, and it operates within a range of restrictions that limit the freedom of the writer". In general, a headline tells the whole story of the news. Only the main point of the entire news story is written as the headline (McCombs, 2018). Importantly, headlines can be recognized by their placement. That is, headlines are always placed above the news story in bigger font size. Besides summing up the news story or the article for that matter, headlines are responsible for distracting and inviting readers' attention.
The research on Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) of representation of Muslims in an article published in the Washington Post. This study is quite relevant to the present study as it takes both the representation of Muslims and focuses on the western print media. Findings of this paper are helpful in understanding the power of language as an ideological tool in the production and propagation of us-and-them doctrine and division (Lajevardi, Oskooii, 2018).
Another Study on War on Afghanistan in the Eyes of the American New York Times and the Pakistani Jang is another significant study compatible to the present research. From the study it can be said the mass media plays a noteworthy role "on the production and reproduction of beliefs, opinions, stereotypes, prejudices, and ideologies" (Drabu, 2018). That is why the relationship between Islam (and Taliban) from one side and terrorism and radicalism from another side are hidden in the semantic of vocabularies used in New York Times.
All texts are written from an explicit viewpoint and Critical Discourse Analysis challenges the positions of the writers. The widespread sense can be viewed as a group of our social experiences (Mollett et al., 2011). Therefore, it will adjust from culture to culture. Fowler's proposal of a dispute
with common sense can also be analyzed as removing the reader from their social point of view, or viewing it from another culture's perception.
J. Sheyholislami (Sheyholislami, 2001) describes that CDA intends to make the connections see-through among discourse practices, social practices and social formations, connections that might be opaque. By keeping in mind both these views it can be believed that the schedule of CDA is very lucid and elaborative as it is concerned not only with the social practices but with the social structures i.e. order of discourse, another significant dimension of CDA is to reveal hidden agendas behind using certain techniques to represent the identities and roles. With such dissident research, critical discourse analysts take explicit position, and thus want to comprehend, represent, and eventually resist social disparity.
Furthermore, the emancipator agenda of CDA has appeared as one of the most efficient views of analysis of discursive power relationships over the previous few decades. It is to analyze the opaque power relations in order to emphasize the hidden ideologies rooted in it (Fairclough, 2018). CDA aspires to make the links see-through among discourse acts, social practices and social structures, connections that might be opaque to a layperson as explained by (Sheyholislami, 2001). By considering both these outlooks it can be said that the plan of CDA is very elaborative as it is concerned not only with the societal practices but with the societal formations i.e. arrangement of discourse, another significant dimension of CDA is to reveal power relations through certain techniques and ways (Flowerdew, Richardson, 2017).
Representation is a central concept within this study because the researcher is interested in the representations that are built for Pakistan military efforts through news articles and headlines. Representation is ... the production of the meaning of the concepts in our minds through language (Kubey, 2018). While G. Kress (Kress, 2003) states that transitivity is representation in language processes. In his 'An Introduction to Functional Grammar', transitivity is a fundamental property of language is that it enables human beings to build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their practice of what goes on around them and inside them (Halliday, 1997).
T. Simpson (Simpson, 2011) asserts that transitivity refers generally to how meaning is represented in the clause. Transitivity examination has been widely used to understand the language of speakers and writers. It examines the organization of sentences which are represented by processes, the participants involved in these processes, and the circumstances in which processes and participants are the party. Using transitivity analysis, researchers have tried to disclose that language structures can produce certain meanings and ideology which are not always overt for readers. In other words, the job of functional analysis, chiefly transitivity analysis, is to determine the relation between meanings and wordings that accounts for the association of linguistic features in a text. Therefore, the notion of transitivity has been used by a number of linguists to shed more light on the use of language in a literary text. Our most prevailing conception of reality is that it consists of "goings-on": of doing, happening, feeling, being. These goings-on are classified in the semantic system of language, and spoken through the grammar of the clause. Transitivity specifies the diverse types of processes that are recognized in the language and the structures by which they are expressed .As a founder and scholar in transitivity analysis, Hallida/s study of William Golding's The Inheritors is a leading illustration. It is "one of the groundbreaking analysis in stylistics" (Carter, Stockwell, 1971). In this analysis, M.K. Halliday (Halliday, 1994) points out how understanding grammar, especially transitivity, can help construe the meaning in a literary text. Patterns of transitivity, including processes, participants, and the circumstances, take place in the clauses and sentences of a text. He asserts that "transitivity is the set of options whereby the speaker encodes his understanding and transitivity is actually the cornerstone of the semantic organization of experience" (Halliday, 1994).
Conceptual Framework
The study investigated the representation of Pak military efforts in American mass media discourse. This play/game of media exists as a process of social constructionism in the society (Feezell, 2018). N. Fairclough (Fairclough, 2018) describes that language plays a significant role in this social constructionism as an integral part of society, as social phenomenon and as socially conditioned process. Furthermore, language used is not only determined by these relationships rather in return it helps in maintaining or changing the relationships. Language is a socially conditioned process as the process of production and interpretation are socially determined. Text producers and interpreters not only draw upon what is in there in minds, they are also socially generated and socially transmitted. Moreover, media condition language in the process of text
production and text interpretation. N. Fairclough (Fairclough, 2003) suggests that MR (member resource) is the key feature of text production and interpretation. N. Fairclough (Fairclough, 2018) calls what discourse participants have in their minds during the course of interpreting and producing texts is Member's Resource (MR). MR contains both cognitive and social features as they come from people's mind while they are socially originated.
Furthermore, social constructionism exists as theoretical construction to CDA. So, Fairclough model of CDA has been selected to explore the objectives of the study. This model has been further explained in methodology section.
Representation of Pak- military efforts
PakMilitary
portray &
Media Discourse
Fairclough 's Model of CDA
urse^^^^^ Social * ice Practice
It revealed the hidden agenda behind the representation of Pakistan military and aims at reflecting Islam as the fundamental source of provoking extremism
Fig. 2. Conceptual Framework
4. Results
This section presents the analysis in segments. These segments have been divided into the analysis of headlines and the analysis of the paragraph contents separately and then the discussion on representation has been elaborated in the next section based on the analysis.
Headlines
Pakistan Military Deals a Blow to Jihadists but Not to Ideology (New York Times, 2014) Taliban Attack Shows Limits of Pakistan's Military Crackdown (Washington Post, 2014) Growing terrorism in Pakistan (Washington Post, 2014)
Pakistan army tells US it is concerned over drone strike (New York Times, 2014) Haqqanis Steering Deadlier Taliban in Afghanistan, Officials Say (New York Times, 2014)
Analysis of the Headlines
Transitivity process
Participants involved Pakistan Military, Jihadists, Taliban, Pakistan, Haqqanis, Officials
Process type of each clause Material
Active agents Pakistan Military, Taliban, Haqqanis, Officials
Textual analysis
Presupposition 1)Pakistan military deals a blow to Jihadists but not ideology presupposes that Jihadists are to be blown along with the ideology of jihad promoted by Islam. 2) Pakistan military crackdown taking place but with its limitations. 3) the line presupposes that terrorism is already there in Pakistan and its growing further 4) Pakistan is concerned over US action against extremism on the land of Pakistan. 5) Taliban are there in Afghanistan, they were deadly already ( and now they are Deadlier)
Specification Eradication of Jihadists have been specified to Pak military job only
Nominalization growing terrorism
Analysis of the Paragraphs Transitivity process
Participants involved Mr. Aziz, Pakistani military, jihadist groups; Lashkar-e-TaibaAhleSunnat Wal Jamaat, Pakistan government, Taliban, violent rivalries, Washington policymakers, Jawaharlal Nehru, the Soviets. Afghanistan, the United States, NATO allies, Taliban, Pakistan generals, Islamic State, a worldwide Muslim terrorists, America and the West, Pakistan's army chief , Gen. Raheel Sharif. the U.S. Ambassador David Hale, the former Taliban leader, insurgency's top leaders, Haqqani group (New York Times, Washington Post, 2014)
Process type of each clause Material, verbal
Relational: the token value relationship is obvious because Pakistan has been given the token of being the ground of growing terrorism. (New York Times, Washington Post, 2014)
Active agents of the lines Pak military and government of Pakistan, Pakistan Military Leaders and generals, Washington policymakers., the United States (New York Times, Washington Post, 2014)
Presupposition
Mr. Aziz's relative untouchability (New York Times, 2014) presupposes Islamic militants are left untouched in war on terror. The headline presupposes that Islam has extremism in its teaching about Jihad and that the militant Islamist ideology is already therein Pakistan because other technically banned jihadist or sectarian groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and AhleSunnat Wal Jamaat used to be flourishing already and the word 'still' presupposes that they are still thriving and little apparent effort by the government or military in this regard.
Even Pakistani military has driven some jihadist groups out of business presupposes Pak military ignoring its role in curbing terrorism. The headline presupposes that now it has made a deal to fight against Jihadists but Islamic militant ideology will remain untouched.
The phrase uses the word 'even' (Washington Post, 2014) an adverb; which shows that some other relevant event has taken place in addition to this event.
It is used to emphasize the surprising or extreme tone in addition of the measures taken by Pak military against militant Islamist ideology, jihadist groups, and sectarian groups. The use of synonyms illustrate that the American newspapers categorize all these types as the same with same connotations.
The discourse also says, "If the Pakistan generals can't curb...." (Washington Post, 2014) suggesting that Pakistan generals are not able to curb terrorism the growing terrorist movements. It further hints over apprehensions that whole Muslim world dreams of worldwide Muslim terrorist network and Pakistan will become a ground for it.
Moreover, the direct of quote of Pakistan army chief presupposes that the sovereignty rights of Pakistan have been compromised in routine and also that Pakistan has made tremendous efforts in fight against terrorism. The discourse justifies the drone attacks by giving presupposition about the presence of Taliban leader Mullah Akhtar Mansour in Pakistan specifying his stay in Baluchistan province (New York Times, 2014).
Specification
By naming the leader of Islamic religious group (Mr. Aziz) the power of militant Islamist ideology has been specified and associated with Islamic religious groups.
The leadership of whole Muslim world army has been specified to The Pakistan army generals Muslim world terrorism. The matter of curbing terrorism has been specified to Pakistani Generals who have the command over Pakistan army (Washington Post, 2014). It expresses three different titles specifying terrorism, Islam and Muslim world to be the part of a single phenomenon that is 'ideology of Jihad'
Nominalization
Mr. Aziz's relative untouchability
The phrase uses the word 'untouchability (New York Times, 2014) which is a noun and taken as a Process that means untouched by the relative authorities. This is an implied way of expressing the Islamic religious groups involved in terrorism. It emphasizes the role of Islam in growing terrorism. Furthermore, the word has some other semantic standing although it may not pragmatically used in this context here but its usage is to be noticed keeping in view its other socially taken meaning in somesocieties. 'untouchability' is the low category of certain social class restricted to tedious and despicable jobs. It is usually linked with the Hindu caste system, but similar groups are present outside Hinduism, for example the Burakumin in Japan, Black South Africans, and Hutu and Twa of Rwanda.
Lexical Choices
The word 'Limits' is used to give an impression of flawed performance of the action undertaken
The word 'cease' (Washington Post, 2014) is used as the verb intransitive to show the attacks are cut down on their own, not because of the military action against them. The verb is ambi-transitive as it is used both as in transitive and transitive verb without requiring a morphological change. The verb as an intransitive verb means to come to an end.
Taliban leader Mullah Akhtar Mansour was killed inside Pakistan (New York Times, 2014), the expression emphasizes Mullah Akhtar Mansour's official rank It also emphasizes his presence in Pakistan's territory by using the word the 'inside' his vehicle in Baluchistan province the phrase again uses name of the place but this time the specific venue is mentioned.
The words/phrases suggesting doubtful and inferior status of Pakistan aid to the Pakistani,
insurgency's top leaders still find shelter in Pakistan, a sweeping anti-militant operation.....no dent
in the Haqqani group's, doubt on Pakistan's claims. The words/phrases suggesting assertive and bossy status of the UScontributes billions of dollars of aid, American officials have pushed Pakistan (New York Times, 2014).
Implicit Representation of Pak military in doubtful and objectionable status
The untouchability of Mr. Aziz has emphasized implicitly that the measures taken by the military against the militants are unsatisfied and merely superficial.
'If the Pakistan generals can't curb the growing terrorist movements..." (Washington Post, 2014) The headline nominalizes the terrorism that is growing. It indirectly hints towards the unsatisfied role of Pak army in fighting against terrorism and militancy.
The words/phrases in reported media discourse suggest the weakness and inability of Pak military to curb the terrorism in the country.
One of the paragraphs gives an account of controlled extremism and violence in the country. But the process of controlled offense and terror has been given the position of subject but as criticism on Pakistan military generals' claim about Pak military efforts and their sacrifices against terrorism (New York Times, 2014). Moreover, only a few months ago, openly boasted, year-long
offensive represents Pak military in more negative connotations as the practical life incidents speak against their words and claims.
Furthermore, the words/phrases suggesting doubtful and objectionable status of Pakistan is Washington policymakers had once regarded Pakistan as a bloc to Soviet ambitions (Washington Post, 2014). The expression specifies Pakistan is no longer trustable for the Washington policymakers. It indicates in implied way the unsatisfied role of Pak Military.
The words/phrases suggesting doubtful and objectionable status of Pakistan military's doubtful and unsatisfied role in the efforts of the war on terror. Taliban leader Mullah Akhtar Mansour was killed inside Pakistan in the drone strike on Saturday that hit his vehicle in Baluchistan province (New York Times, 2014). The line presents Pakistan to be providing a sanctuary to Taliban leader Mullah Akhtar Mansour by presupposing his presence inside Pakistan to the reader. It falsifies the claim of Pakistan army chief that Pakistan is putting efforts in establishing peace and making sacrifices in the war on terror. Whereas, the words/phrases suggesting assertive and bossy but peace establishing status of the US and China for that matter are the country's army chief met with U.S. Ambassador David Hale though the U.S. Ambassador has been voiceless but the mentioning of his proper name and description of his rank suggests the bossy and assertive representation of the US government and the state in the discourse
Explicit Representation of Pakistan military
Pakistan military has been shown with a weak and inefficient persona in the paragraph by expressing their disloyal role in driving some jihadist groups out of business while also suggesting that they had been in some dealing with terrorists as well .This makes them sound doubtful and disloyal to the American government and cause (Washington Post, 2014).
The discourse thus represents Pakistan military in a negative portrayal as it has been discussed as being lenient with the militants and weak as it is unable to curb the extremism.
By presupposing that Pakistani generals are not able to curb the growing terrorist movement in the line the country is placed in a doubtful condition and position for its responsibility of eradicating terrorism. The mentioning of the rank of generals the text increases the intensity of the matter somehow giving the tone that even the generals may not be able to curb terrorism. It also indicates the generals being the representatives of Pak military are failed in controlling the terrorism in the country. The lines take Pakistani generals role to be inefficient and doubtful by placing them in the 'if (Washington Post, 2014) clause which shows the conditionality in the efforts of war on terror
Pakistan... recruiting ground for the Islamic State and ... "Muslim terrorist network" (Washington Post, 2014) The lines infer a conclusion for Pakistan to be a fertile recruiting ground for the Islamic State while also terming Islam in negative connotation.
In addition, Pakistan is merely an object for the US to be used timely as the word 'once' (New York Times, 2014) suggests which means at one time or at a specific time and the lines ... It indirectly hints towards Pak army being just a puppet in the hands of US because whenever it comes to the defense activities of any country, the role of army is central to it.
Moreover, terrorist movements, the Islamic State, a worldwide Muslim terrorist network have been represented to be on equal footings with each other. All these three entities in the later portion of the 4th paragraph (New York Times, 2014) are taken to be belonging to the same group especially Islam has been taken as leading such kind of disastrous activities so all these three entities are the 'other' group for the US which is at war with all these elements and is concerned about their eradication by Pakistan's generals.
Pak inferior and doubtful nature in the efforts of the war on terror is evident from the lines again pointing out the' aid to the Pakistani command ... 'American officials have pushed.' (New York Times, 2014) the lines also suggest bossy relation of the US with Pakistan. They refer to the usually proclaimed propaganda of the US against Pakistan deforming its image by terming it as lenient and convenient with the terrorists' at one hand and taking the US aid 'at the same time' (New York Times, 2014). These lines '... a sweeping anti-militant operation ... seemed to put no dent ...' (New York Times, 2014) show an element of mistrust in mutual relations of both countries' ... insurgency's top leaders still find shelter in Pakistan.' (New York Times, 2014) show Pakistan to be in passive mode to make the country's leadership/administration as dominated by the insurgents who stay freely under their nose and the word 'still' show that they used to be there long before as well. In the last line is taken as a passive participant in the discourse of Pak US military relations in order to assert US position weakening Pak position being just at the receiving end.
Discussion on Interpretation
Post 9/11, invasion of US in Afghanistan changed the international and regional scenarios of alliances, interests and power play. Pakistan being US allied and neighbor of Afghanistan was vulnerable to many security and victimizing issues, especially because of her influence on Afghan warlords in post Russian evasion. Alliances changed from Mujahedeen to Taliban, backed up by the adversities of Pakistan. Pakistan faced losses over US 100 billion dollars other than 75000 human lives. Pakistan managed a proactive approach to safeguard its ideological and geographical sovereignty and the role of armed forces remained most crucial, leading to ultimate success of eradicating all anti-state elements from its soil which never suited the power players. Role of Pakistan was being gauged only to address the interests of the invaders so all pressures including media tactics were employed especially by the European media further to specify US media being the main stakeholder.
Keeping in focus the interest of US media in war on terror, the analysis of the selected data leads us to the fact that the grammatical features and lexical material are utilized to make biased representations of the events and participants' role .It is through the linguistic manipulation of the textual material that the difference between 'the innocent or guilty and 'good or bad' are constructed in the discourse implicitly or explicitly hence performing a very crucial aspect of the ideational function of the language as described by Halliday (Halliday, 1997).
The transitivity process is found much to do with the policy of the newspapers to represent the reality in a desired manner. The terrorists are given the role of the active agents of the terror action taking place to present image of the state of Pakistan as a helpless object of the action. In almost all the cases the active agent is either the terrorist groups or the act of terror while Pakistan is passive in this regard. Pakistani military is a passive participant exhibiting its inability and flawed strategies to cope up with the insurgency in the country.
In addition, the projection of the terror groups has been reflected as getting stronger and more effectual and dangerous. Certain facts, ideologies and concepts are presupposed with a strategy to convince the readers at unconscious and unintentional level) like the word 'still' presupposes that the presence of insurgents was already there in Pakistan and it is still there in spite of all the claims of fighting hard against militants in war on terror by Pak military. Thus the technique of presupposition is employed for giving the certain representation.
The analysis of presupposition in the text is interesting as it manipulates certain facts, beliefs and ideologies to be true and commonly shared between the writer and readers or audience which the audience inadvertently agrees to. The function of presupposition is to suppose or assume beforehand; take for granted in advance. The presence of a presupposed fact or condition makes it difficult to be refuted or challenged. The headlines analyzed the element of Presupposition is analyzed in the headlines which predefine certain facts without getting them uttered directly or assertively in the text.
Investigating the ideational function of language the data revealed that the controversial and questionable status has been given to Pakistan army quite explicitly by representing its failed and disappointing performance in war on terror. Pakistan military efforts are represented to be flawed and inefficient to fight the war on terror while there is an interesting representation of Pakistan military measures that is being altogether embedded in confusing relationship with the terrorists whom they are deliberately leaving untouched.
Taking the discussion further it is evident from the analyzed data that it is only once in a selected paragraph from an article of the Washington Times that Pakistan's (then) army chief, Raheel Sharif (twice once with his rank and then with his name and Pakistan military have been given voice and an active role in the discourse .But the role given to them is making false claims about the sacrifices and the achievements they have made in war on terror. Sharif insisted that "Pakistan's efforts, successes and sacrifices in fight against terrorism have been unparalleled." But the newspaper does not acknowledge this positive claim of Pak army rather Pakistan is taken to be other way round i.e. supporting terrorism and being favorable to them on one hand and taking the US assistance to fight war on terror right on the other one .
Pakistan's achievements and effective role in the war on terror are not given credit and the military generals are represented in a derogatory way speaking of their sacrifices and success (so called) in war on terror. It's a usual cases in the analyzed data that Pakistan army officials are represented in their direct quotes boasting of the positives results they have managed to derive in their war on terror and they are given their direct voice in the text to sound that they themselves
claim their success in the context not anybody else in general and U.S. in particular. Moreover, the lexical process of using the name of army chief is actually the way to represent the whole Pak Military and its role in War on terror.
The data also represents Pakistan and its military along with the civilian regimes being played at the hands of the radical Islamic terrorists. The futility of Pak war on terror is evident from the data as the terrorists are taken as the active agent while representing the counter terror measures (supposed to be taken by Pak military) as passive. The analysis exhibited the American media emphasizing on the accountability of the leader of Islamic movement (Mr. Aziz) and other Islamic groups. It revealed the hidden agenda that is to distort the image of Islam and provoking people against Islam representing it as the fundamental source of terrorism.
5. Conclusion
In a nut shell, the way the reality of the Pak US military relations and Pak efforts in war on terror has been represented by the American leading newspapers lead to us to a few identifiable points which are analyzed from the data . Answer to the first research question was analyzed in the major discourse of Pakistan effort in war on terror as all the lexical choices, tactics of generalization ,presupposition ,transitivity process, inter-texuality etc employed serve the purpose of the American media discourse to represent Pakistan and its military officials and authorities as a passive participant, explicitly or implicitly, in their flawed efforts in war on terror whereas the militants were shown as playing an active role in the discourse being a dominating and powerful agent who perform the action actively in a clause. Answer to the second research question has been investigated by analyzing the ideational function of language in the representation of Pak military efforts in war on terror. In this regard, the transitivity process, lexical choices, passivization, presupposition and generalization, etc have helped to represent Pakistan, US and terrorists in a specific relation with each other which are ideologically-charged and embedded in an unbalanced power relation to present a particular participant to be superior and empowered while the other one to be inferior, dominant and an objectionable role.
The investigation into the research questions, eventually, reveals the hidden agenda behind such preferred representation that is to distort the image of Pakistan military as being submissive when it comes to Islamic ideology about jihad. This contrived representation aims at reflecting Islam as the fundamental source of provoking extremism.
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