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4References
1. Federal Law No. 273-FZ of December 29, 2012 "On Education in the Russian Federation".
2. The fourth main factor in building a knowledge-based society (from the World Bank report "Building Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Higher Education").
3. Putin has set the task to achieve universal digital literacy in the Russian Federation. URL: http://news.rambler.ru/scitech/37047389/?utm_content=news&utm_ medium=read_more&utm_source=copy link
4. Message of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation dated March 1, 2018. URL: http://www.consultant.ru / document/ cons doc LAW 291976.
ОПОРА НА РОДНОЙ ЯЗЫК КАК ОСНОВА МЕТОДИКИ ОБУЧЕНИЯ ESP
Андрианова Светлана Васильевна
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент, Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет МИФИ (г. Москва), email: sva-sva@yandex.ru
DOI: 10.24412/2072-5833-2023-1-90-101
Аннотация:
В качестве введения к статье приводится разница между обучением «иностранному языку» и «второму языку», отмеченная ещё основоположником русской школы психолингвистики А. А. Леонтьевым. С целью учёта этой особенности предлагается при обучении ESP использовать метод опоры на родной язык и учитывать семантику терминологии специальности обучаемых. Описываются разработанные и используемые в обучении методические материалы, в основе которых онтология и тезаурус специальности на родном языке. Приводятся графические результаты обучения аспектам английского языка, таким как чтение, говорение и профессиональная лексика. По результатам сравнительного обучения старыми и новыми методами, показано, что именно эти аспекты усваиваются наиболее эффективно при использовании предлагаемой методики. Отмечается международная универсальность методики для стран, где английский язык не является родным.
Ключевые слова: родной язык, второй язык, иностранный язык, английский для специальных целей, тезаурус, онтология, физика.
RELIANCE ON THE NATIVE LANGUAGE AS THE ESP TEACHING METHODOLOGY
Andrianova Svetlana Vasilevna
Candidate of Pedagogical Science, Associate Professor, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, (Moscow), email: sva-sva@yandex.ru
DOI: 10.24412/2072-5833-2023-1-90-101
Annotation:
As an introduction to the article, the difference between teaching a "foreign language" and a "second language" is given, noted by the founder of the Russian school of psycholinguistics A.A. Leontiev. In order to take into account this feature, it is proposed to use the method of relying on the native language when teaching ESP and take into account the semantics of the terminology of the trainees' specialty. The methodological materials developed and used in teaching are described, which are based on the ontology and thesaurus of the specialty in the native language. Graphical results of teaching aspects of the English language, such as reading, speaking and professional vocabulary, are presented. According to the results of comparative training with old and new methods, it is shown that these aspects are assimilated most effectively when using the proposed methodology. The international universality of the methodology is noted for countries where English is not a native language.
Key words: native language, second language, foreign language, English for Specific Purposes, thesaurus, ontology, physics.
1. INTRODUCTION
The founder of the Russian school of psycholinguistics, academician A.A. Leontiev noted that studying a non-native language can be of two types: "second language" - and "foreign language" [1]. According to A.A. Leontiev, "the second language" is a language that is not native to the learner but spoken by a relatively large number of people in their surroundings. At the same time, "foreign language" is the language the speakers of which are not in the learner's language environment. This difference in teaching a foreign language is also noticeable when comparing teaching in language (philological, linguistic) universities with non-language universities.
In non-linguistic universities in Russia, teaching English is a "foreign language" teaching. The most challenging aspect for students is listening. It became relevant and appeared as an aspect of learning after the "fall of the iron curtain". The main difficulty of this aspect for students lies in the absence of native speakers of a foreign language around them, which would allow them to learn to understand a foreign language from hearing. To become a full-fledged specialist at NRNU MEPhI, a university student must master English at a level not lower than Intermediate and master the ESP of his speciality.
In the methodology of teaching a foreign language, there is a principle of taking
into account the native language; it is also called teaching based on the native language
[2]. Teaching a foreign language with an explicit or implicit comparison with the native language is necessary because when perceiving foreign speech, the analysis occurs only on the categorical basis of the native language. Students make statements with the use of the model of the native language. The discrepancy between the native and foreign languages requires correction. If the teacher takes these features into account, it allows achieving the learning goals.
2. PROFESSIONAL THESAURUS AS A WAY OF ESP TRAINING WITH THE RELIANCE ON THE NATIVE LANGUAGE
2.1. Features of teaching ESP in a non-linguistic university
To master the ESP of his speciality, a student must master the relevant knowledge, skills, and possessions (skills).
A future specialist must: know the methods and technologies of scientific communication in a foreign language; know the stylistic features of a presentation of scientific activity results in oral and written form in a foreign language; be able to follow the basic norms adopted in scientific communication in a foreign language; possess the skills of analysing scientific texts in a foreign language; possess the skills of critical assessment of the effectiveness of various methods and technologies of scientific communication in a foreign language; be proficient in various methods, technologies, and communication types when performing professional foreign language activities.
Teaching English at a technical university is associated with some problems that are absent in linguistic and philological universities. These issues include students' workload in majors, low school linguistic training and a limited number of hours devoted to studying a foreign language, creating objective difficulties in teaching ESP
[3]. The increasing requirements for the level of foreign language training of technical universities students necessitate developing and implementing new teaching methods that consider the specialists' qualifications and training conditions.
ESP training must necessarily align with the goals of the learners [4]. ESP training in Russia at different technical universities and different departments is solved in different ways. Some lecturers deliver their subject courses in English, and the situation is ideal if all the students understand the very essence of the subject. Others present the subject twice, in Russian and English [5]; it is excellent if this can be done within the curriculum. Today, teaching ESP lies mainly with the teachers of English, and to solve it, we find it necessary to select educational material as close to the speciality of the trainees as possible. To train professional, communicative competence in English, we need teaching resources that would meet the requirements of the task at hand. Judging from ESP methodologists' practical experience, we find that when choosing educational resources for teaching a foreign language for specific purposes, it is best to refer to coursebooks in the relevant discipline written by native speakers [3].
A non-translation method of teaching a foreign language is impossible because then, the process of thinking must change [6]. A person thinks in his native language, the brain and speech are entirely interconnected. Having received a complex text, the student seeks to translate this text into his native language, since he does not think in
a foreign language. Explicit or implicit translation into the native language is always present at the first stage of training. This stage seems to be necessary and logical in the transition to uninterrupted understanding. Therefore, not a single stage of teaching English, and for many in a non-linguistic university, the initial stage can occur without the help of translation. Furthermore, translation is impossible without the appropriate dictionaries.
The commonality of the linguistic characteristics of different sciences and texts of a different linguistic organisation are essential for clarifying the ESP terms content and teaching English. Mastering grammar is usually straightforward, and a scientific style grammar does not differ from the grammar of other varieties of literary languages. The phonetic, morphological and syntactic characteristics of the language, despite specific differences, generally do not create any particular problems in teaching [7]. The most extensive and least homogeneous area of the human language from a functional and stylistic perspective is vocabulary. In teaching any spheres of language, including "languages for special purposes", it is the lexical structure that forms the basis and at the same time is a stumbling block for both the student and the teacher [8]. If other language levels are associated with language peculiarities as a system, then the lexical level is directly related to the reality, topic and subject of study.
2.2. Thesaurus as a way of teaching ESP in the context of a subject area known in the native language
At the dawn of civilisation, when people could express their thoughts in writing only with ideograms and symbols, the only possible dictionary was the one in which words were arranged according to thematic groups, and it is called an ideographic dictionary. It is to ideographic dictionaries that the thesaurus belongs, which was one of the first created by Peter Mark Roget and was called the "Thesaurus of the English language" [9]. Roget believed that a convincing classification of words according to their meanings is impossible until the objects of reality named by these words are thoroughly studied and organised. The compiler's primary task of an ideographic dictionary of the thesaurus type is the identification and subsequent, rational classification of conceptual groups represented in the language vocabulary. The creators of such dictionaries set themselves the goal of a thematic organisation of vocabulary, but they do not refuse the alphabet services.
Experts in various fields of knowledge have repeatedly noted that the tasks of the educational terminological dictionary are best suited to the thematic principle of the material distribution [10,11]. In special terminological thesauri, terms are in the context of a subject area. The perception of such terms does not cause students difficulties because terms are learned along with the subject. From a psychological point of view, thesauri reproduce the mechanisms of our memory, and structuring, being a psychological tool, increases the effectiveness of teaching in general and teaching foreign language vocabulary, in particular. The preferable use of thesauri as dictionaries is explained by the presence of structural-semantic relations in them. To train professional English-speaking communicative competence, we need learning materials that meet the task at hand. From the practical experience of methodologists in ESP, one way to choose
educational material for teaching a foreign language of a speciality is to use textbooks in the relevant discipline written by native speakers [12]. Knowledge of the content of the basic concepts of a particular subject area determines a specialist's competence.
Figure 1 Fragment of the ontology of fundamental concepts of physics
Physics is an extensive science that consists of a large number of branches or subject areas. The terminological system of physics is a single whole, consisting of systems of terms interconnected at the conceptual and subject levels (in the field of mechanics, electricity, optics, nuclear physics, etc.), which, in turn, are divided into subsections [13]. Terms exist outside the context, but they are connected only with the terminological field, which replaces the context and gives the term unambiguity [14]. If we present any physics branch in the form of an ontology with the basic concepts in the native language, then the same English-language ontology will only differ in terminology (Fig. 1). Thus, the content of Physics as a discipline remains the same in all languages, which means that the context of a physical thesaurus is clear and accessible to students specialising in physics. The main difference is vocabulary or terminology. The natural structuring of physics terminology into a physical thesaurus seems rather effective from a methodological perspective. At present, the structuring of various fields of knowledge into thesauri or ontology and the creation of terminological knowledge bases is becoming more widespread, associated with the overall development of Information Technologies [15,16].
3. METHODOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND TRAINING METHODS
3.1. Materials used in the learning process
More and more researchers have recently supported the idea that the choice of
the educational material should correspond to the trainees' speciality [17]. The critical difference of the proposed teaching method is selecting educational material, which in its content should be based on the studied subject area and contain the terms of the future speciality sufficient for further communication in the speciality. Furthermore, the texts should be interconnected and reflect the subject area in the form of a thesaurus, familiar to students in their native language and fixed in their minds.
Since NRNU MEPhI is a university specialising in physics, a US-published textbook on physics for colleges, "Serway's College Physics" [18] was used to teach professional, communicative competencies effectively. The use of a more complex textbook, for example, for higher educational institutions, seems redundant since it can cause difficulties in physics in the university junior years, which will distract from learning English. On its basis, the textbook "English Thesaurus of Student-Physicist" [19] was developed and published, and all text material is authentic. The level of presentation of the General Physics subject in this English-language textbook is quite comprehensible for Russian students who have chosen physics and technical disciplines as their future profession.
Each lesson of the textbook and the introduction of lexical material in the form of texts contain a terminological thesaurus that allows students to identify and logically organise each lesson's terms related to other sections and concepts. The thesaurus, or thematic dictionary, establishes subject and logical connections of basic, central, derivative terms, replacing the context and naturally accumulated in students' memory. The method of selecting lexical material in the manual is methodical, making it possible to acquire professional English-language vocabulary more effectively due to paradigmatic contextual connections of terms, which is very important in limited time opportunities for learning English at a technical university. Also, lessons contain questions to the text, which involve the active use of the studied terminology.
The units of the textbook contain three types of exercises to develop vocabulary skills. Exercise 1 offers to compose terms from the proposed set of letters and develop productive vocabulary skills. In Exercise 2, students need to make up the correct phrases from individual words to recognise phraseological units that are independent terms. In Exercise 3, students are asked to select a term from the listed ones and insert it into the text. The exercise aims to form knowledge of the semantics of the term and recognise its meaning by context.
The coursebook Appendix contains a terminological dictionary consisting of individual words and phrases (which make up more than 80% of Physics terminology). The words included in the phrase may be absent in the terminological dictionary of the Appendix as separate concepts because the formation of a potential vocabulary of a student in the learning process is assumed. In this case, some terms may be present more than once because their translation depends on the context. A typical example is the concept of "momentum", which is fundamental in Physics, the correct translation of which depends on the field of application. The coursebook [19] allows you to master more than 1000 educational lexical units and is aimed at the effective teaching of professional terminology in the subject area.
3.2. The pilot training and its results
To broadly test the proposed methodology, pilot training was carried out at the Department of English Language of the National Research Nuclear University MEPhI. The university requires to master the English language knowledge at the Intermediate level (B1 according to Common European Framework of Reference, CEFR) within their first and second academic years. Upon graduation from secondary school without a specific in-depth study of English, students' average English level is Pre-Intermediate (A2 according to the Common European Framework of Reference, CEFR). The L1 for the students who took part in the experiment was Russian. All the students thoroughly studied physics and mathematics at secondary school, so these subjects could not have caused particular difficulties for them.
The main difference between the old training program and the proposed method should be noted here. Its essence is that the former textbook does not contain any articles on the students' speciality, and its texts are in no way interconnected with each other. It includes occasional popular science texts, but they do not contain the required terminology. A simple calculation of professional terms in the old textbook yielded just over 100 terms.
The pilot training took place in 2017-2018 and 2018-2019 academic years, i.e. four terms. 1st-year students from eight groups, and a year later, the same students of the 2nd year participated in the study. Four groups were trained according to long-established university programs and methods [20] - "Old", and four - according to the newly proposed methodology [19] - "New". At the end of the pilot training, the students took a test that checked the English language knowledge in two aspects: Reading and Speaking. The knowledge of the vocabulary was tested separately.
Reading
Hiillll
1 group 2 group 3 group 4 group 1 group Z group 3 group 4 group Old New
Figure 2 Test results for the Reading
Reading as one of the receptive types of language skills allows a student to obtain ready information and compare it with his knowledge. The degree of native language involvement affects reading comprehension. Such an approach makes it easier to perceive the information known in the native language. Fig. 2 shows the results of the corresponding testing. From the Reading test results, it is clear that the "New" groups
10Ö94 B094 6094 4094 2094 094
coped with the test significantly better. We account for this trend by reading texts in the speciality throughout the entire period of education and studying professional vocabulary.
Speaking
12094 10094 BÜ94 Б094 4094 2094 094
■
III 1 ■
1 II 1 1 1
1 group 2 group 3 Old group 4group 1 group 2 group 3 group 4 group New
I 0 po nts ■ 5 po nts ■ 10 po nts ■ 15 po nts
Figure 3 Test results for the Speaking
Speaking as a productive type of language skills, in our case, psychologically represents the analytical-synthetic phase of communication. The student must analyse the material read and make up a version of a spoken answer. Figure 3 shows that most of the students in the "Old" groups were only partially successful by making 4-5 mistakes, which was assessed as 5 points. The students of the "New" groups completed all the assignments practically without any mistakes.
The students had to understand the text correctly and provide an oral answer to the question, which is impossible without knowing the relevant professional vocabulary. Thus, the knowledge of professional vocabulary, or rather the terminology of physics, was undoubtedly necessary. It gave an advantage to the "New" groups, who studied the terms for two years. The new coursebook [19] contains 1000 terms that can be acquired per year. In contrast, the "old" one [20] contains a lot less physical terms.
Lexis determines the vocabulary of a language, and terminology distinguishes one scientific area from another. Figure 4 shows that the "Old" groups did not succeed in the vocabulary section; moreover, this is perhaps the worst result of all the testing. Besides, the correct placement of words in the ontology requires the knowledge of the speciality subject and the corresponding term relationship. The best results of the "Old" groups in the "reading" section show that the grammar-translation method of the old textbook [20] worked fine for this aspect. However, the speaking task only proved successful with the knowledge of the terminology. English terminology should be taught without disregarding this process. Students who know the terminology of the speciality are more fluent at expressing and understanding speech by ear.
Vo cabala rv
4 group 3 group 1 group 1 group
OX Z094 4094 6094 8094 10094 1Z094
■ New ■ 0 d
Figure 4 Results of terminology acquiring
4. CONCLUSION
The proposed presentation of educational material in the form of related foreign language thesaurus articles in the speciality, similar to the knowledge in the native language, can significantly increase the educational process efficiency. At the same time, the number of acquired professional terms increases up to 1000 items per year. In turn, this makes it possible to master receptive and productive skills that allow students to make reports and presentations in their speciality. Participation in discussions and conferences becomes straightforward.
It should be noted that this study is essential for teaching English at technical universities and for developing training programs in countries where English is not a native language. The international context of this research is in its versatility for any of the native languages that students use to study Physics.
Литература
1. Леонтьев А. А. Основы психолингвистики. М.:ИЦ«Академия», 2005. 287 с.
2. Щукин А. Н. Лингводидактический словарь. Более 2000 единиц. М.: Астрель: АСТ: Хранитель, 2007. 747 p.
3. Andrianova S.V., Makarova A. A. Terminological Dictionaries in ESP Training of Engineer Physicists. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 236, 2016. pp. 230234.
4. Dudley-Evans T., Jo St John M. Developments in English for Specific Purposes. London: CUP Press. 2012. 301 p.
5. Zinder E. Z., Yunatova I.G. The necessity shifting ESP teaching paradigm. Especially for learness from rapidly developing engineering disciplines like enterprise. 2nd International Conference on Engineering and Telecommunication, Moscow: МЕГХ 2015, pp. 341-343
6. Sidorova L. V., Lotva N. K., Zhondorov P.N. Development of foreign language
communicative competence in undergraduates of non-language universities. Perspektives of Science and Education, 54. 2021, pp. 242-256.
7. Carriere I. Contribution of terminological resources in learning specialized languages. "Specialised Language in Global Communication " University of Hamburg. August 2007. 12 р.
8. Salazar D. Lexical Bundles in Native and Non-native Scientific Writing: Applying a Corpus-Based Study to Language Teaching. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research. 2016. p.p. 125 - 129
9. Roget P., The New Roget's thesaurus of the English Words and Phrases, New York Penguin Books. 2015. 832 p.
10. Соловова Е. Н. Методика обучения иностранным языкам. M: AST, 2008.
239 с.
11. ISO 860:2007 Terminology work - Harmonization of concepts and terms. Geneva: ISO. http//www/iso/org (accessed 15.02.2023)
12. Gorlin S. Nuclear English. Language Skills for a Globaizing Industry, London: WNU Press, 2012. 196 p.
13. Андрианова С. В., А.А. Макарова А. А. English-Russian Dictionary for Nuclear English. М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2013. 56 с.
14. Andrianova S. V. Key points of physics English vocabulary in training of bachelors. 2d the International Scientific Practical Conference on the Humanities and the Natural Science ISPC 2014. SCIEURO, London. pp. 283-289.
15. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. INIS Online Database: THESAURUS. URL: http://inisdb.iaea.org/ INIS (accessed 15.02.2023)
16. Faber P., Leon-Arauz P., Reimerink A. EcoLexicon: New Features and Challenges. Conference: GLOBALEX 2016. Lexicographic Resources for Human Language Technology in conjunction with the 10th edition of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference. 2016. pp. 73-80.
17. Andrianova S. V., Dyumin A. A. The Academic Integrity Violations Detection System for Data Science Course on the MOOC-platform . 19th IEEE Mediterranean Eletrotechnical Conference. MELECON 2018 - Proceedings, 2018. pp. 52-57
18. Faughn J. S., Serway R. A., Bennet C. A. Serway's College Physics. Seventh edition, USA. 2018. 1008 p.
19. Андрианова С. В. English Thesaurus of Student-Physicist: Учебное пособие для обучения студентов-физиков англоязычной лексике широкой специальности «Общая физика». М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2013. 196 с.
20. Курашвили Е. И. Английский язык для студентов-физиков. M: AST. 2002. 320 p.
References
1. Leontiev А. А. Osnovy psiholingvistiki. [Fundamentals of psycholinguistics]. Moscow: IC Academy, 2008. 287 p.
2. Shchukin A. N. Linguo-didactic encyclopedic dictionary. [Lingvodidacticheskij entciclopedicheskij slovar], More than 2000 units. Moscow: Astrel, 2007. 747 p.
3. Andrianova S.V., Makarova A. A. Terminological Dictionaries in ESP Training of Engineer Physicists. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 236, 2016. pp. 230234.
4. Dudley-Evans T., Jo St John M. Developments in English for Specific Purposes. London: CUP Press. 2012. 301 p.
5. Zinder E. Z., Yunatova I.G. The necessity shifting ESP teaching paradigm. Especially for learness from rapidly developing engineering disciplines like enterprise. 2nd International Conference on Engineering and Telecommunication, Moscow: МIPT. 2015, pp. 341-343
6. Sidorova L. V., Lotva N. K., Zhondorov P.N. Development of foreign language communicative competence in undergraduates of non-language universities. Perspektives of Science and Education, 54. 2021, pp. 242-256.
7. Carriere I. Contribution of terminological resources in learning specialized languages. "Specialised Language in Global Communication " University of Hamburg. August 2007. 12 р.
8. Salazar D. Lexical Bundles in Native and Non-native Scientific Writing: Applying a Corpus-Based Study to Language Teaching. International Journal of Learner Corpus Research. 2016. p.p. 125 - 129
9. Roget P., The New Roget's thesaurus of the English Words and Phrases, New York Penguin Books. 2015. 832 p.
10. Solovova E. N. Metodika obucheniya inostrannym yazykam. [Metodika obucheniya inostrannym yazykam]. Moscow: AST, 2008. 239 p.
11. ISO 860:2007 Terminology work - Harmonization of concepts and terms. Geneva: ISO. http//www/iso/org (accessed 15.02.2023)
12. Gorlin S. Nuclear English. Language Skills for a Globaizing Industry, London: WNU Press, 2013. 196 p.
13. Andrianova, S. V., Makarova, A. A. English-Russian Dictionary for Nuclear English. [Anglo-russkij slovar' po yadernoj fizike]. Мoscow: NRNU MEPhI. 2013. 56 p.
14. Andrianova S. V. Key points of physics English vocabulary in training of bachelors. 2d the International Scientific Practical Conference on the Humanities and the Natural Science ISPC 2014. SCIEURO, London. 2014. pp. 283-289.
15. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. INIS Online Database: THESAURUS. URL: http://inisdb.iaea.org/ INIS (accessed 15.02.2023)
16. Faber P., Leon-Arauz P., Reimerink A. EcoLexicon: New Features and Challenges. Conference: GLOBALEX 2016. Lexicographic Resources for Human Language Technology in conjunction with the 10th edition of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference. 2016. pp. 73-80.
17. Andrianova S. V., Dyumin A. A. The Academic Integrity Violations Detection System for Data Science Course on the MOOC-platform . 19th IEEE Mediterranean Eletrotechnical Conference, MELECON 2018 - Proceedings, 2018. pp. 52-57
18. Faughn J. S., Serway R. A., Bennet C. A. Serway's College Physics. Seventh edition, USA. 2018. 1008 p.
19. Andrianova S. V. English Thesaurus of Student-Physicist: Uchebnoe posobie dlya obucheniya studentov-fizikov angloyazychnoj leksike shirokoj special'nosti "Obshchaya fizika". [Textbook for teaching English vocabulary of the broad speciality "General Physics" to student-physicists]. Moscow: NRNU MEPhI. 2013. 196 p.
20. Kurashvili E. I. Anglijskij yazyk dlya studentov-fizikov. [English for physics students]. Moscow: Astrel AST. 2002. 317 p.
МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЙ ОПЫТ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ УЧЕБНО-ПРОИЗВОДСТВЕННЫХ ОБЪЕДИНЕНИЙ
Шишов Сергей Евгеньевич
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор, Московский государственный университет технологий и управления им. К.Г. Разумовского (гМосква), e-mail: seshishov@mail.ru
Кальней Валентина Алексеевна
Доктор педагогических наук, Российская международная академия туризма (г. Химки), e-mail: v-kalney@yandex.ru
DOI: 10.24412/2072-5833-2023-1-101-121
Аннотация:
В последние десятилетия международный рынок труда ажиотажно ищет связи между промышленными предприятиями и профессиональными образовательными организациями. ЮНЕСКО спонсирует исследования сотрудничества профессиональных образовательных организаций с производственными структурами в различных странах Африки, арабских государств, Китая и Европы. Авторы статьи поставили перед собой цель изучить опыт этих исследований на примере учебно-производственных объединений. Важно выявить тенденции и механизмы, когда учебно-производственное обучение приносит пользу и обучающимся, и промышленным компаниям. Показано, что во всем мире с точки зрения нормативно-правовой базы все учебные предприятия при учебно-производственном объединении должны иметь определенную свободу для продвижения товара на рынке. Эта автономия распространяется на концепцию обучения, отбор учащихся, повышение квалификации обучающего персонала и производственных рабочих, выбор методов финансирования, процедур проведения экзаменов и аттестации и т.д. Между государственными учреждениями такой баланс может не сохраняться. Автономия - это интеграция с рынком через
