CC BY
2
DOI: 10.23968/2500-0055-2024-9-1-17-28
REGIONAL SETTING OF TEMPLES IN DAKSHINA KOSALA, INDIA: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND CONNECTIONS
Saumya Shrivastava*, Abir Bandyopadhyay, Vandana Agrawal National Institute of Technology, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India Corresponding author's e-mail: sshrivastava.phd2021.arch@nitrr.ac.in
Abstract
Introduction: The region of Dakshina Kosala (also known as South Kosala) is mentioned in various ancient Indian texts. The exact geographical boundary has continuously changed over time, and today, only a rough estimate can be made of the Dakshina Kosala region, which approximately covers the northern and central parts of the present-day state of Chhattisgarh, along with the western part of the state of Odisha, India. Excavations and writings show that this was a prosperous region near central India, without any seaport, but with large markets, trade centers, and educational institutions. To access this region, many trade routes were established from various parts of India. This led to the development of cities with markets along these trade routes. Many temples were also seen in this region, serving as examples of the intangible heritage of the place. Purpose of the study: This region made a significant contribution to the temple art and architecture of India. The present study aims to determine if there is a spatial and architectural link between the temples in this region. Methods: The methodology involved an initial phase of reading and analyzing pertinent literature to prepare detailed maps delineating the boundaries of Dakshina Kosala. Subsequently, employing rigorous analysis with Google Earth and GIS tools, ancient trade routes were traced, temples were located on the maps, and a comprehensive analysis was conducted to derive conclusive results. Results: This paper establishes a relationship between the geographical locations and construction materials of the temples within and outside the geographical boundary of Dakshina Kosala.
Keywords: boundaries of Dakshina Kosala, spatial links, connectivity, ancient trade routes, temple architecture.
Introduction
India has always been a place of attraction for foreign travellers (Lamb, 1958). It is evident from various pieces of literature that in ancient times India had a lot of foreign travelers who visited it in different periods, such as Megasthenes (302-298 BCE), Deimachus (320-273 BCE), Ptolemy (130 CE), Fa Hien (405-411 CE), Huen Tsang (630 CE), I Tsing (671-695 CE), Marco Polo (1292-1294 CE), and Ibn-E-Battuta (1333-1342 CE) (Bhattacharya, 2014; Chandra, 1977; Johnston, 1941; Iasgyan.in, 2021; N.C.E.R.T., 2011; Thapar, 1992).
These travellers mentioned the conditions of India at that time in their travelogues. Fa-Hien described India as a rich and prosperous country (Chandra, 1977). Huen Tsang wrote that the Indian towns were very prosperous and unique, and also described Indians as lovers of education, literature, and fine arts (Pradhan and Yadav, 2013). Those travellers came through different trade routes in India, and descriptions of their journeys can be found in their travelogues and in the writings of various historians, archaeologists, and scholars (Chakrabarti and Rakshit, 1995; Nayak, 2004; Patnaik, 2013; Sahu & Chandra, 1983; Srivastava, 1968; Watters, 1904).
These trade routes connected inland cities of India with other countries. Many cities developed and flourished along these trade routes, exhibiting a conspicuous capacity to generate culture in the
form of art, ideas, styles, and attitudes, as well as to induce high levels of economic innovation and growth, though not always simultaneously (Scott, 1997). Due to the existence of trade routes, cities became nodes of cultural dispersion. The culture of the cities would spread through these trade routes from one location to another.
Methods
For this study, existing literature about the geographical location, boundaries of Dakshina Kosala, and descriptions of the trade routes connecting Dakshina Kosala with other places in India, as well as with foreign countries, was examined. Also, literature related to the temples of the region and their architecture was reviewed. These texts were comprehensively analyzed, and the results related to the spatial relations among the temples in the region were identified. For a better understanding of the information pertaining to the location of temples and trade routes, maps were created using ArcGIS1.
Results and Discussion
Boundaries of Dakshina Kosala
In ancient times, Dakshina Kosala was of great importance (Minj, 2015). It is evident from the writings of various scholars that the region of Dakshina Kosala used to be very rich and prosperous
1 Maps are generated through ArcGIS Online (GIS software). https://www.arcgis.com/home/index.html
For citations: Shrivastava, S., Bandyopadhyay, A., Agrawal, V. (2024). Regional Setting of Temples in Dakshina Kosala, India: Spatial Distribution and Connections. Architecture and Engineering, No 1 (9), pp. 17-28. DOI: 10.23968/2500-0055-2024-9-1-17-28.
(Majumdar, 2001). Many descriptions are available about the boundaries of Dakshina Kosala, but the earliest mention of it is found in the Ramayana, an ancient Indian text (Patnaik, 2016). According to the Ramayana, Lord Rama ruled over "Mahakosala", which means the larger Kosala, with boundaries extending from present-day Nepal in the north to the upper Mahanadi valley in the south (Patnaik, 2016). When Lord Rama divided his territory among his sons, he gave the upper part, Uttar Kosala (North Kosala), to his elder son Lav, and the lower part, Dakshina Kosala, to his younger son Kush (Patnaik, 2016) (Fig. 1). Uttar Kosala had its capital city, Ayodhya, in Uttar Pradesh, while Dakshina Kosala had its capital city at Kushavati (present-day Ranipur Jharial) in western Odisha (Mishra, 2013; Mishra, 1993). Later, various Puranic texts such as Matsya Purana, Brihat Samhita, Brahmanda Purana, and Ratnavali also mentioned the region of Kosala, but the descriptions only referred to the southern part of the region, i.e., Dakshina Kosala (Patnaik, 2016).
Later, Raychaudhuri (2006) described the boundaries of the Dakshina Kosala region based on the Vana Parva of the Mahabharata, an ancient Indian text. In the 7th century CE, the Chinese traveler Huen Tsang visited Dakshina Kosala and discussed its boundaries in his travelogue (Watters, 1904). Later, based on Huen Tsang's account, Cunningham in 1881-1882 and Watters in 1904 also discussed the boundaries of Dakshina Kosala (Nayak, 2004). Then, Sircar (1971) described the boundary of Dakshina Kosala, taking into account Cunningham's and Watter's boundaries for the region. For the present study, the boundaries of
Dakshina Kosala were identified by superimposing the boundaries identified in the above-mentioned studies, Patnaik (2016), and as per various district gazetteers2. As a result, the boundary of Dakshina Kosala consists of the undivided districts of Raipur, Bilaspur, and Raigarh in the state of Chhattisgarh, as well as Sambalpur, Nuapada, Bolangir, Kalahandi, Sundargarh, Boudh, and Subarnpur districts in the state of Odisha (Fig. 2).
Connectivity in the region
A great deal of trade and commerce made Dakshina Kosala a prosperous region (Patnaik, 2016). Dakshina Kosala had many important cities such as Juagarh, Sirpur, Sambalpur, Asurgarh, etc. (Nayak, 2004).
Kalinga (roughly the boundary of present-day Odisha), a neighboring region to Dakshina Kosala, was very famous for its textile industries (Dutt, 2009; Nayak, 2004). A lot of trade and commerce used to take place in Kalinga via Dakshina Kosala (Nayak, 2004). It is evident from the Roman coins found during excavations that diamonds and gemstones from the Dakshina Kosala region were popular among Romans (Das, 1978; Tripathy, 1996). The strong black elephants of Dakshina Kosala were in demand not only by Indian states, but also by foreign countries (Nayak, 2004). Dakshina Kosala had important educational centers and marketplaces like Sripura (present-day Sirpur in Mahasamund district, Chhattisgarh) (Sharma, 2012).
Various texts discuss the presence of highly significant trade routes in Dakshina Kosala (Nayak, 2004). For the present study, some of the major trade routes have been mapped. In India, the majority of ancient trade routes have been converted into state or national highways (Bhattacharyay and De, 2009).
2 District Gazetteer of Raipur, Bilaspur, Korba, and Raigarh in the state of Chhattisgarh, as well as Sambalpur, Sundargarh, Boudh, Bargarh, Subarnapur, Bolangir, Kalahandi, and Nuapada in the state of Odisha.
Uttar I [PradeEhJ
West
Bengal
Fig. 1. Kosala region as per Puranic texts. Source: Author, base map - Meena (2023)
Fig. 2. Boundaries of Dakshina Kosala. Source: Author
Table 1. Ancient trade routes connecting Dakshina kosala
with other parts of India
Route Connecting cities Important cities in the route
Route 1 Tamralipti Toshali Bhubaneswar, Jajpur
Route 2 Toshali Patliputra Tamralipti
Route 3 Patliputra Juagarh Bilaspur, Raipur, Asurgarh
Route 4 Mathura Sisupalgarh Via Vidisha, Bilaspur, Raipur, Asurgarh, Toshali
Route 5 Ahichhatra Asurgarh Kanpur, Kaushambi, Bilaspur, Raipur, Sarguja
Route 6 Kaushambi Ganjam Bilaspur, Raipur, Asurgarh, Juagarh
Route 7 Ranchi Raipur Raigarh, Sambalpur
Source: author.
For example, the ancient Grand Trunk route of India still exists as National Highway 3 (NH3), running from Attari to Jalandhar in Punjab, from Jalandhar in Punjab to Agra in Uttar Pradesh as NH44, and from Agra in in Uttar Pradesh to Kolkata in West Bengal as NH19 (Bhattacharyay and De, 2009). In order to map the ancient trade routes, various descriptions of these routes were studied and then matched with the closest present-day state or national highways connecting those old cities. These routes were traced and a map of the ancient trade routes of the Dakshina Kosala region was generated through geo-tagging in ArcGIS. Seven such routes were identified, as shown in Table 1.
The earliest account of trade routes shows the connectivity of the Dakshina Kosala region with the seaport (Bay of Bengal) in the 4th-2nd century BCE via Tamralipti (currently in the Midnapore district in West Bengal) and Toshali (currently a town near Bhubaneshwar) (Nayak, 2004), identified as route 1 in Table 1. During that period, the region had two major metropolises of the Mauryan kingdom named Juagarh and Sisupalgarh, which are currently locations near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha (Nayak, 2004). In ancient times, Tamralipti used to be a port city, and there are traces of foreign relations with south-east Asian countries from the port of Tamralipti (Patra and Patra, 1993; Srivastava, 1968).
Later, the region became very well connected to northern India by various land routes. One of those routes connected Patliputra (present-day Patna in Bihar) to Toshali (Acharya, 1955) in the 1st century BCE - the 2nd century CE (route 2 in Table 1) via Tamralipti.
There is a description of a trade route connecting Patliputra to Juagarh through Dakshina Kosala (Bilaspur, Raipur), and Asurgarh in the 2nd century CE (Acharya, 1955; Nayak, 2004), which can be identified as route 3 in Table 1. The route primarily connected Patna with Raipur via Sarguja, a district in the state of Chhattisgarh (Acharya, 1955). There were routes connecting Raipur to Juagarh and Ganjam via Asurgarh, also known as a "salt route" in ancient times (Acharya, 1955; Nayak, 2004).
Another trade route was established between the central part of India and the Kalinga region
through Dakshina Kosala, which can be identified as route 4 in Table 1. The route connected present-day Mathura in Uttar Pradesh to Sisupalgarh (near present-day Bhubaneswar) in Odisha through land routes (Chandra, 1977) via Vidisha, Raipur, Bilaspur, Asurgarh, and Toshali. The route was originally established between Mathura and Vidisha, and later connectivity was extended to Dakshina Kosala and Kalinga.
One more trade route was developed during the Gupta rule (3rd century CE - 6th century CE), known as the "brick trade route", connecting the present-day Ahichhatra near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh to the present-day Asurgarh in Odisha (Nayak, 2004) (route 5 in Table 1).
A trade route connected Kaushambi with Ganjam, a port city in Odisha (Nayak, 2004). This route also connected with Dakshina Kosala and can be identified as route 6 in Table 1.
The main reason for the development of these routes was the Gupta ruling dynasty in both regions until the 5th century CE. After the 9th century CE, many land routes were developed in the region by the Kalchuri ruling dynasty. One of the major trade routes connecting present-day Ranchi in the state of Jharkhand with present-day Raipur can be identified as route 7 in Table 1 (Nayak, 2004) (Fig. 3).
Many cities were located along these trade routes, such as Raipur, Bilaspur, Sambalpur, Sirpur, Boudh, Asurgarh, Juagarh, etc. (Chandra, 1977; Nayak, 2004; Patnaik, 2016; Sharma, 2012). Besides, the region was also well connected with southern India. Geographically, the region acted as a bridge between southern and northern India.
In ancient times, in addition to land routes, riverine routes were also used. Of the two trade routes, one by water and the other by land, the former is better since it is less expensive but yields large profits (Shamasastry, 1929). The riverine routes were preferred over the land routes due to the lesser chance of getting attacked by other people and wild animals (Shamasastry, 1929). The famous rivers of Dakshina Kosala, which were used as trade routes in ancient times were Mahanadi, Tel, Vaitarani, Birupa and Brahmani (Nayak, 2004; Singh, 2020). After superimposing all the trade routes on a map, it is
clear that the entire region of Dakshina Kosala was well connected within itself and with other places in India through the trade routes (Fig. 3).
Temples of Dakshina Kosala
In Dakshina Kosala, a series of ancient temples can be found. The earliest temples belong to the 5th century CE, post-Gupta period (Greaves, 2015). Various research scholars have discussed and studied the temples of Dakshina Kosala. As Stadtner (1981) stated, Kosala was "an independent area in central India sponsoring a distinctive regional school of temple architecture and sculpture". Hardy (2020) said that "the history of Indian temple architecture would have been written differently if the Malhar (in Dakshina Kosala) temple had been discovered earlier". A list of the celebrated/famous temples in the region was compiled based on various studies conducted in the area (see Table 2). The coordinates of the temples are identified in GIS and mentioned in the list. The temples are sorted according to the approximate year of construction, as obtained from various available literature sources (Fig. 4).
To understand the regional setting of the temples, a map was created by identifying the location of the temples in Google Earth and then geo-tagging them in ArcGIS (Fig. 5). The numbering of the temples in Fig. 5 and Table 2 is the same.
Relation between the trade routes and the temples
When examining the locations of the temples as shown on Fig. 5, it can be seen that the temples
are clustered within a specific geographical zone, with three such clustered zones being apparent. To further analyze the spatial setting of these temples, the identified trade routes shown in Fig. 3 were superimposed over the temple locations. It was found that most of the temples either lie on the trade routes or in very close proximity to them. The number of temples identified along the trade routes is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 6.
Routes 1 and 2 have the Prachi group of temples and the Viraja temple near Jajpur. Route 3 connecting Patliputra to Juagarh has a total of 5 temples: the Shiva temple in Udaipur, the Shiva temple at Pali, the leaning Huma temple in Sambalpur, the Kosaleshwar temple at Boudh, and the brick temples of Asurgarh. There are a total of seven temples, as identified in Table 2, located on Route 4. These temples include the Bhoremdeo temple at Kawardha, the Devrani Jethani temple at Tala, the Dhobini temple at Damakheda, the Pataleshwar temple at Nuapada, the Somnath temple, the Indralath temple, and the 64 Yogini temples at Ranipur Jharial. On Route 5 (brick trade route), a total of 6 famous temples were identified. Three Vishnu temples in the Dakshina Kosala region are the Devrani Jethani temple, the Laxman temple at Sirpur, and the Vishnu temple of Asurgarh. Additionally, there are three temples outside the region: the temples at Ahichhatra, Bhitargaon, and Nibiya Khera, all located in Uttar Pradesh. The Paschima Somnath temple near Boudh district is located on Route 6. On Route 7, there are five
Fig. 3. Ancient trade routes of Dakshina Kosala. Source: Author
Table 2. List of Dakshina kosala temples
No. Temple Location Year of construction (CE) Coordinates (latitude, longitude)
1 Shiva Kalcha Bhadwahi 10th century 2301'4.59", 82055'13.39"
2 Bhoramdeo Kawardha 13th century 22°6'57.528", 81°8'54.1314"
3 Vishnu Janjgir 11th century 22°0'21.24", 82°34'19.9194"
4 Pataleshwar Malhar 10th-12th century 21°33", 82°12"
5 Devrani Jethani Tala 5th-6th century 21°54'25.9194", 82°1'33.5994"
6 Citavari devi Dhobini 8th century 21°36'54.3234", 82°48'42.804"
7 Andal deul Kharod 8th century 21°44'48.48", 82°34'46.5594"
8 Shabari Kharod 8th century 21° 44' 24.4794", 82° 33' 51.1194"
9 Keshavnarayan Shiverinarayan 9th-12th century 21° 43' 18.48", 82° 35' 41.6394"
10 Ram Janki Turturiya 9th century 21° 29' 32.6394", 82° 21' 46.0794"
11 Siddheshwara Palari 9th century 21° 27' 12.8118", 82° 10' 39.5034"
12 Sirpur Group Sirpur 6th-7th century 21° 20' 39.12", 82° 11' 25.4394"
13 Bhand Dewal Arang 9th century 19° 8' 59.6394", 72° 55' 51.96"
14 Rajiv Lochan Rajim 8th century 20° 58' 23.4834", 81° 23' 21.8394"
15 Bhongapal Group Kondagaon 5th-6th century 19° 48' 25.92", 81° 23' 21.8394"
16 Group of temples Gadh Dhanora 9th century 19° 57' 53.28", 81° 45' 0.7914"
17 Shiva Temple Pujaripali 9th century 21° 41' 40.884", 83° 21' 5.112"
18 Shiva Temple Pali 9th-10th century 22° 22' 39", 82° 19' 31.8"
19 Hatkeshwar Raipur 15th-16th century 21° 12' 56.5194", 81° 35' 27.24"
20 Mahamaya Bilaspur 12th century 22° 17' 29.3994", 82° 9' 53.64"
21 Jagannath Jharsuguda 13th century 21° 51' 59.0034", 84° 0' 52.5234"
22 Huma Sambalpur 9th-10th century 21° 16' 53.3274", 83° 54' 44.604"
23 Kapileshwar Binka 8th century 20° 59' 34.0794", 83° 47' 39.48"
24 Pataleshwar Nuapada 9th century 20° 35' 1.896", 82° 40' 16.4634"
25 64 Yogini Ranipur Jharial 9th century 20° 16' 58.8", 82° 57' 50.3994"
26 Indralath Ranipur Jharial 9th century 20° 17' 13.9194", 82° 58' 5.5194"
27 Somnath Ranipur Jharial 9th century 20° 16' 52.3194", 82° 57' 54"
28 Asurgarh Kalahandi 5th-6th century 20° 5' 45.9594", 83° 20' 43.8"
29 Kosaleswar Subarnapur 8th century 21° 12' 28.4394", 84° 25' 20.9994"
30 Rameshwar Subarnapur 13th century 20° 50' 22.56", 83° 55' 17.7594"
31 Manamunda Subarnapur 11th century 20° 50' 4.1274", 83° 54' 52.344"
32 Charisambhu Gandharadi 8th century 20° 52' 31.1514", 84° 12' 19.4034"
33 Rameshwar Boudh 8th century 20° 50' 39.2634", 84° 18' 58.572"
34 Paschima Somnath Boudh 8th century 20° 50' 38.76", 84° 18' 58.4634"
35 Dhabaleshwar Boudh 8th century 20° 50' 38.688", 84° 18' 59.04"
36 Nrushingnath Bargarh 14th century 21° 47' 40.9554", 83° 56' 27.6714"
37 Ashatshambhu Dhenkanal 10th century 20° 15' 38.1954", 85° 50' 3.6234"
38 Viraja Jajpur 13th century 20° 21' 21.7794", 85° 49' 33.7794"
39 Prachi Valley Group Cuttack 7th-16th century 20° 16' 10.488", 85° 57' 17.8554"
40 Samleshwari Sambalpur 15th century 21° 29' 40.992", 83° 57' 31.104"
Source: Greaves, 2015; Hardy, 2020; Kumar, 2003; Meister, 1988; Minj, 2015; Patnaik, 2016; Pradhan, 2008; Sarma & Sarma, 1941; Sharma, 2012; Singh, 2004; Stadtner, 1981; Tripathy, 1996.
temples including the leaning Huma temple at Sambalpur, the Pujaripali temple at Raigarh, the Vishnu Mandir at Janjgir, the Pataleshwar temple at Malhar, and the Devrani-Jethani temple at Tala (Table 2, Fig. 4). The temples are also located either on the riverine routes or in proximity to them. A total of 22 temples are found in the proximity of the riverine routes (Table 4).
The maximum number of temples i.e., 17 temples are found in the proximity of the Mahanadi River route which starts from the Sihawa mountain range
and ends at the Bay of Bengal (Table 4). All the listed temples (Table 1) are located either on a trade route (land route or river route) or in proximity to it (Fig. 6).
Similarities in temples of Dakshina Kosala
Given the proximity of the trade routes and the location of the temples in Dakshina Kosala, it is possible that they may share certain similarities or parallels. It has been observed that the temples bear similarities in architectural style, materials used in construction, etc. Other than this, the enshrined deity of the temples is also the same in the majority of
Fig. 4. Temples of Dakshina Kosala. Source: author
Table 3. Temples in the proximity of the land trade routes
Route No. of temples Material
Routes 1 and 2 2 (group of temples) Brick and stone
Route 4 7 Brick and stone
Route 6 1 Brick and stone
Route 3 5 Brick and stone
Route 5 6 Brick
Route 6 2 Brick and stone
Route 7 5 Brick and stone
Source: author.
Fig. 5. Location of the listed temples. Source: author, locations of the listed temples. Raipur, Chhattisgarh: ArcGIS, 2023
temples. Most of the temples have been conserved and restored multiple times, and the people have changed the deities of the temples. However, the similarity in construction materials can still be easily seen in these temples. In ancient times (5th-14th century CE), the construction materials used for temple building in Dakshina Kosala were brick and
Table 4. Temples in the proximity of the riverine trade routes
River From To No. of temples Material
Mahanadi Sihawa Bay of Bengal 17 Brick and stone
Tel Koraput Boudh 2 Brick and stone
Vaitarani Keonjhar Bay of Bengal 1 Stone
Brahmani Sundergarh Bay of Bengal 2 Brick and stone
Source: author.
West Bengal
Tamralipti
Legends
Land Route
_ Riverine Route
Temples
50 0 50 100 150 km
Fig. 6. Temples and trade routes of Dakshina Kosala Source: author, temples and trade routes of Dakshina Kosala. Raipur, Chhattisgarh: ArcGIS, 2023
Fig. 7. Construction materials for temples. Source: author, construction materials for temples. Raipur, Chhattisgarh: ArcGIS, 2023
stone (Sharma, 2012). There were three types of temples, constructed completely with stone, with brick, and sometimes both materials were used (Fig. 7).
Brick was the primary construction material in Dakshina Kosala until the 12th century CE. As for the temples listed, 62 % of them are made of bricks (see Fig. 8). The earlier temples (5th-12th century CE) were mostly made of bricks, while in later times, stone became the main temple construction material. One of the influencing factors behind the use of bricks may be the trade routes. In North India, there are ancient brick temples along the trade routes, such as the Bhitargaon temple and the Nibiya Khera temple. It is possible that these structures and construction techniques were brought to the region through trade routes, resulting in the famous brick temples in Dakshina Kosala.
Conclusion
In ancient times, Dakshina Kosala had connectivity with other parts of the Indian subcontinent through trade routes. This study found that the renowned temples in the region are spatially linked because they are located either on a trade route or in close proximity to it. The construction of temples may have been a method to show power and influence in ancient times, as rulers built these magnificent structures along trade routes to showcase the prosperity and craftsmanship of the region.
Due to this connectivity, the temples of Dakshina Kosala share similarities that are reflected in the construction materials used for the temples. In ancient times, bricks used to be the main construction material in Dakshina Kosala, and the majority of the temples were made of bricks.
The connectivity of Dakshina Kosala with North India and the Kalinga region also influenced the
construction materials
a Brick a Brick & Stone ■ ■ Stone
temple architecture. In a hierarchy, the temples of North India, belonging to the Gupta period, come first based on timeline, followed by the temples of Dakshina Kosala, which belong to the post-Gupta period. There was a brick trade route, and it is possible that bricks were traded along this route. Through this connection, the techniques of brick manufacturing may have spread and led to a significant proliferation of brick temples in the region. The stone temples of the Kalinga region also influenced the temple architecture that can be seen in the later temples of the Dakshina Kosala.
It is possible that, in addition to these similarities, the temples also share resemblances in architectural style. Due to job opportunities, craftsmen and masons may have traveled along these trade routes, or kings may have employed workers from other regions. These masons could have carried architectural styles and intangible heritage from one region to another. This might have been reflected in the temples and created a link among the temples within and beyond the geographical boundaries of the region, which is a subject for further research.
References
Acharya, P. (1955). Ancient routes in Orissa. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 18, pp. 44-51.
Bhattacharya, R. (2014). Fa-hien's journey to the Land of Buddha. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp. 310-319.
Bhattacharyay, B. N. and De, P. (2009). Restoring the Asian Silk Route: toward an integrated Asia. In: ADBI Working Paper Series, ADBI Working Paper 140. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute.
Chakrabarti, D. K. and Rakshit, M. (1995). The archaeology of ancient Indian cities. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 296 p. Chandra, M. (1977). Trade and trade routes in ancient India. Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 259 p. Das, B. S. (1978). Studies in the economic history of Orissa from ancient times to 1833. Calcutta: Firma KLM, 300 p. Dutt, B. B. (2009). Town planning in ancient India. Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 379 p.
Greaves, L. R. (2015). Brick foundations: North Indian brick temple architecture and terracotta art of the fourth to sixth centuries. PhD Thesis. Cardiff: Cardiff University.
Hardy A. (2020). Vârâta temples: the lost tradition in-between. In: Greaves, L. R. and Hardy, A. (eds.). Bridging Heaven and Earth: Art and Architecture in South Asia. 3rd century BCE - 21st century CE. New Delhi: Dev Publishers & Distributors, pp. 57-80.
Iasgyan.in (2021). List of foreign travellers to India. [online] Available at: https://www.iasgyan.in/blogs/list-of-foreign-travellers-to-india [Date accessed: February 21, 2023].
Johnston, E. H. (1941). Two notes on Ptolemy's geography of India. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 73, Issue 3, pp. 208-222. DOI: 10.1017/s0035869x00097264.
Kumar, A. (2003). Passage to early medieval phase: emergence of temple centred society in early Bihar. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 64, pp. 247-253.
Lamb, H. B. (1958). The Indian merchant. Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, pp. 231-240.
Majumdar, S. B. (2001). Core peripheral relationship in South Kosala — a regional study. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 62, pp. 98-103.
Meena, A. (2023). Indian river map - PDF download physical map of India with rivers. [online] Available at: https://schools. aglasem.com/river-map-india/ [Date accessed: November 02, 2023].
Meister, M. W. (1988). Prasada as palace: Kutina origins of the Nagara temple. Artibus Asiae, Vol. 49, No. 3/4, pp. 254-280. DOI: 10.2307/3250039.
Minj, R. J. (2015). Art and architecture of the brick temples of Chhattisgarh from 6th century to 14th century AD. PhD Thesis. Raipur: Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University.
Mishra, M. K. (1993). Influence of the Ramayana tradition on the folklore of Central India. In: Singh, K. S. and Datta, B. (eds.). Rama-Katha in tribal and folk traditions of India. Proceedings of a Seminar. Calcutta: Seagull Books, pp. 15-30.
Mishra, N. K. (2013). Dakshin Kosala and Buddhist art. International Journal of Advances in Social Sciences, Vol. 1, Issue 2, pp. 66-69.
Nayak, C. (2004). Trade and urban centres in ancient and early medieval Orissa. PhD Thesis. Bhubaneswar: Utkal University.
N.C.E.R.T. (2011). Through the eyes of travellers perceptions of society (c. tenth to seventeenth century). In: Themes in Indian History. Part II. New Delhi: NCERT, pp. 115-137.
Patnaik, S. K. (2013). Puri. The heritage city. A study of religion culture and tourism. PhD Thesis. Bhubaneswar: Utkal University.
Patnaik, J. K. (2016). Temples of South Kosala (6th century AD - 11th century AD). A case study of stellate temples. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 254 p.
Patra, S. K. and Patra, B. (1993). Archaeology and the maritime history of ancient Orissa. Orissa Historical Research Journal, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 107-118.
Pradhan, A. K. (2008). New light on excavations at Pachrahi. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 69, pp. 1044-1055.
Pradhan, A. K. and Yadav, S. (2013). Sirpur — a unique township of early medieval India (fresh evidence from excavations). Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 74, pp. 854-864.
Raychaudhuri, H. (2006). Political history of ancient India: from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 571 p.
Sahu, J. K., & Chandra, J. B. (1983). Historical geography of Orissa From earliest time to 1110 A D [PhD Dissertation, Sambalpur University]pp. 35-41. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in-.8443/jspui/handle/10603/187030
Sarma, L. P. P. and Sarma, L. P. P. (1941). Obscene carvings in the temples in Mahakosala. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 5, pp. 261-264.
Scott, A. J. (1997). The cultural economy of cities. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol. 21, Issue 2, pp. 323-339. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2427.00075.
Shamasastry, R. (1929). Kautilya's Arthasastra. 3rd edition. Mysore: Mysore Printing and Publishing House, 494 p. Sharma, A. K. (2012). Ancient temples of Sirpur. New Delhi: BR Publishing Corporation, 202 p.
Singh, P. K. (2004). Asurgarh - An Early Urban Centre of Orissa. Orissa Historical Research Journal, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 49-54.
Singh, R. (2020). Political condition of the Tel Valley region during the early history period in Odisha. In: Hussain, S. and Mendaly, S. (eds.). Recent Developments in Historical and Archaeological Researches in Odisha, pp. 91-102.
Sircar, D. (1971). Studies in the religious life of ancient and medieval India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 292 p.
Srivastava, B. (1968). Trade and commerce in ancient India (from the earliest times to c. A.D. 300). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 346 p.
Stadtner, D. M. (1981). The Siddhesvara temple at Paläri and the art of Kosala during the seventh and eighth centuries. Ars Orientalis, Vol. 12, pp. 49-56.http://www.jstor.org/stable/4434249
Thapar, B. K. (1992). India's place on ancient trade routes. Senri Ethnological Studies, Vol. 32, pp. 117-125.
Tripathy, B. (1996). Archaeological exploration in Boudh District, Orissa: a preliminary report. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Vol. 56/57, pp. 41-54.
Watters, T. (1904). On Yuan Chwang's travels in India (A.D. 629-645). London: Royal Asiatic Society 401 p.
региональное расположение храмов дакшина косала в индии: пространственное распределение и связи
Саумья Шривастава*, Абир Бандьопадхьяй, Вандана Агравал Национальный технологический институт, Райпур, Чхаттисгарх, Индия *E-mail: sshrivastava.phd2021.arch@nitrr.ac.in Аннотация
введение: Регион Дакшина Косала (также известный как Южная Косала) упоминается в различных древнеиндийских текстах. Его географические границы постоянно менялись, и в настоящее время региону Дакшина Косала, который приблизительно охватывает северную и центральную части современного штата Чхаттисгарх наряду с западной частью штата Одиша, Индия, можно дать лишь приблизительную оценку.
Раскопки и письменные источники свидетельствуют о том, что это был процветающий регион недалеко от центральной Индии (без морского порта) с крупными рынками, торговыми и образовательными центрами. Для доступа в регион было проложено множество торговых путей из различных частей Индии. Это привело к развитию городов с рынками вдоль таких торговых путей. В регионе было построено множество храмов, которые стали примером его духовного наследия. Цель исследования: Регион внес значительный вклад в храмовое искусство и архитектуру Индии. Цель настоящего исследования — выяснить, существует ли какая-либо пространственная и архитектурная связь между храмами в данном регионе. Методы исследования заключались в анализе научной литературы для подготовки подробных карт, очерчивающих границы Дакшина Косала. Далее, используя тщательный анализ при помощи инструментов Google Earth и ГИС, были нанесены древние торговые пути и храмы. Был проведен всесторонний анализ для получения окончательных результатов. результаты: В статье устанавливается взаимосвязь между храмами с точки зрения их географического расположения и использованных при их возведении строительных материалов в рамках географической границы Дакшина Косала и за ее пределами.
ключевые слова: граница Дакшина Косала, пространственная связь, связность, древние торговые пути, храмовая архитектура.
